What Every Christian and Jew Should Know

The Foundations of the Islamic Belief

by
Al Ghazali (died 505/1111)

Shaykh Ahmad Darwish
Mosque of the Internet
mosque@nmia.com

Foreword by Professor Hasan El Fatih
Dean of Umm Durman Islamic University

This book was written in Arabic by Imam Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, or
Algazel as he was known to medieval Europe (died 505/1111).

His numerous works are well known, respected and quoted not
only the middle east but in the higher universities of west. His
contribution to theology and philosophy have proved to be major
cornerstones of resource throughout the centuries.

During the revival of Greek philosophy in the middle ages, many
Christians were attracted and swayed by the persuasion of Greek
logic. In an effort to protect Christianity, Christian theologians relied
upon the profound arguments of Al Ghazali to defeat the adherents
of Greek philosophy and thereby protected their religion.

Al Ghazali's works have been translated and printed in many
languages. Comparative studies have shown that Jean Jacques
Rousseau, known in the west as the pioneer of children's
education, based his ideas and methods upon the work of Al
Ghazali.

The Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam says of Al Ghazali: "He was the
most original thinker that Islam produced and its greatest
theologian." A.J. Arberry, professor and director of the Middle East
Centre at the University of Cambridge, England referred to him as
being: "He was one of the greatest mystical theologians of Islam
and indeed of all mankind." I pray that the readers will benefit from
the sound reasoning which they are about to embark upon and that
it will open guiding channels of thought that will give pleasure in this
life and in the Hereafter.
Hasan El Fatih
Umm Durman Sudan 1992

 PREFACE

The first translation into English was by the late Professor Nabih
Amin Al Faris, American University, Beirut, October 31, 1962 with
the examination of Dr. John H. Patton, Professor of Religion Park
College, Parksville, MO. USA.

The reason for this work being undertaken yet again is due to the
need for updating this work and also to rectify English linguistic
usages and to adapt it for the computer with the addition of an
index.

If the reader encounters difficulty in understanding some parts of
this book, we would advise a visit to the grand philosopher and
Sufi of Islam, Professor Hasan El Fatih, at the Mosque of Sheikh
Muhammad El Fatih, Umm Durman, Sudan.

It is interesting to note that in the English versions of the Bible we
found that the proper noun of the Creator referred to as God
whereas we found in the Arabic edition of the Bible the proper
noun changes to be Allah which is the same proper noun
mentioned in the Arabic Koran.

                        
In the Name of the Compassionate, the Merciful Allah,
This is the Book of the Foundations of Islamic Belief.

1 THE BELIEF OF SUNNI, THE WAY OF THE PROPHET

The Exposition of the Belief of the Sunni, way of the Prophet, is
embodied in two phrases of witnessing (Shahadah) which form
one of the Pillars of Islam.

(A) THE MEANING OF THE FIRST PHRASE OF WITNESSING:

We say - our success is from Allah - praise be to Allah the Creator,
the Restorer, the One who does whatever He wills. He whose
Throne is glorious and whose Power is Mighty; who guides the
select amongst His worshipers to the righteous path. He who
grants them benefits once they affirm His Oneness by guarding the
articles of belief from the darkness of doubt and hesitation. He who
leads them to follow the way of His chosen Prophet Muhammad -
praise and peace be upon him - and to follow the example of his
companions, the most honored, by directing their footsteps to the
way of truth. He who reveals Himself to them in His Essence and
in His Works by His fine attributes which none perceive except the
one who inclines his ear in contemplation. He who makes known
to them that He is One in His Essence without any associate,
Single without any equal, Eternal without a similar.

Nothing precedes Him, He is without any beginning. He is Eternal
with none after Him, Everlasting without any end, subsisting without
cessation, abiding without termination He has not ceased and He
will not cease to be described by the epithets of Majesty.
At the end of time He will not be subject to dissolution and decay,
but He is the First and the Last, the Hidden and Apparent, and He
knows everything.

1. TRANSCENDENCE (EXALTATION)

Allah is not a body possessing form, nor a substance restricted
and limited: He does not resemble other bodies either in limitation
or in accepting division.

He is not a substance and substances do not reside in Him; He is
not a quality of substance, nor does a quality of substance occur in
Him.

Rather, He resembles no existent and no existent resembles Him.
Nothing is like Him and He is not like anything. Measure does not
bind Him and boundaries do not contain Him. Directions do not
surround Him and neither the earth nor the Heavens are on
different sides of Him.

Truly, He is controlling the Throne in the manner in which He said
and in the sense in which He willed - in a state of transcendence
that is removed from parallel and touch, residence, fixity of location,
stability, envelopment, and movement.

The Throne does not support Him, but the Throne and those who
carry it are supported by the Subtleness of His Power and are
constrained by His Firmness. He is above the Throne and Heavens
and above everything to the limits of the earth with an aboveness
which does not bring Him nearer to the Throne and the Heavens,
just as it does not make Him further from the earth.

Rather, He is Highly Exalted above the Throne and the Heavens,
just as He is Highly Exalted above the earth. Nevertheless, He is
near to every entity and is "nearer to the worshiper than his juggler
vein" and He witnesses everything since His nearness does not
resemble the nearness of bodies, just as His Essence does not
resemble the essence of bodies.

He does not exist in anything, just as nothing exists in Him: Exalted
is He that a place could contain Him, just as sanctified is He that no
time could limit Him.

For, He was as before He had created time and place, and just as
He was, He is now. He is distinct from His creatures through His
attributes. There is not in His Essence any other than Him, nor does
His Essence exist in any other than Him.

He is Exalted from change and movement. Substance does not
reside in Him and the quality of substance do not befall Him.
Rather, He is in the attributes of His Majesty beyond cessation.
And He is in the attributes of His Perfection. He is not in need of an
increase in perfection.
In His Essence, His Existence is known by reason (in this life).

In the Everlasting Life, His Essence is seen by the eyes of the
righteous as a favor from Him, and a subtlety as a completion of
favors from Him through their beholding His Gracious Face.

2. LIFE AND POWER He is Living, Able, the Conqueror and
All-subduing. Inadequacy and weakness do not befall Him; slumber
does not overtake Him nor sleep; annihilation does not prevail over
Him nor death. He is the Owner of the visible and invisible
Kingdom, and of Power and Might. His are dominion, subjugation,
creation, and command; the Heavens are rolled in His Right and
created things are subjugated in His Firmness.

He is Single in creating and inventing. He is Alone in bringing into
existence and innovating. He created all creatures and their deeds,
and decreed their sustenance and their life span; nothing decreed
escapes His Firmness and the mutations of the affairs does not slip
from His Power.

Whatever He decrees cannot be numbered neither does His
Knowledge end.
3. KNOWLEDGE

He is Knowledgeable of all the known, encompassing all that
happens in the depths of earth to the highest heavens. He is
Knowledgeable in which there is not an atom that escapes His
Knowledge in heaven and earth.

Rather, He knows the stamping of the black ant upon the solid rock
in the darkest night. He perceives the movement of a particle of
dust in mid-air.
He knows the secrets and that which is more hidden.

He is the Overseer of the whispering of the self and the flow of
thoughts, and the most deepest concealment of the selves.

With a knowledge which is ancient from eternity and by which He
has not ceased to be described through the ages.

Not by a knowledge which is subject to updating by occurring and
circulating in His Essence.

4. WILL

He is the Willer of all existence and the Planner of all contingent
things. There is nothing that occurs in His visible or invisible world
except by His prior planning and His execution whether it is little or
plenteous, small or large, good or evil, benefit or harm, belief or
unbelief, gratitude or ingratitude, prosperity or loss, increase or
decrease, obedience or disobedience all is according to His
Wisdom and Will, what He wills occurs and what He does not will
does not occur. There is not a glance of the onlooker nor a stray
thought that is not subject to His Will.

He is the Creator at first, the Restorer, the Doer of whatsoever He
wills. There is none that rescinds His command, and none that
supplements His decrees, and there is no escape for a worshiper
from disobeying Him, except by His Help and Mercy, and none has
power to obey Him except by His Will. Even if mankind, jinn, angels,
and devils were to unite to try to move the weight of an atom in the
world or to render it still, without His Will they would fail.

His Will subsists in His Essence amongst His Attributes. He has not
ceased to be described by it from eternity, willing, - in His Infinity -
the existence of the things at their appointed time which He has
decreed. So they come into existence at their appointed times as
He has willed in His Infinity without precedence or delay. They
come to pass in accordance with His Knowledge and His Will
without variation or change.

He directs matters not through arrangement of thought and
awaiting the passage of time, and so no affair occupies Him from
another affair.

5. HEARING AND SEEING
He - the Most High - is the Hearer, the Seer. He hears and sees.

No audible thing, however faint, escapes His Hearing, and no visible
thing, however minute, is hidden from His Sight.

Distance does not prevent His Hearing and darkness does not
obstruct His Seeing. He sees without a pupil and eyelid, and hears
without the meatus and ears, as He perceives without a heart, and
seizes without limbs, and creates without an instrument, since His
attributes do not resemble the attributes of the creation, and as His
Essence does not resemble the essence of creation.

6. SPEECH He - the Most High - speaks, commanding, forbidding,
promising, and threatening, with a speech from eternity, ancient,
and self-existing.

Unlike the speech of the creation, it is not a sound which is caused
through the passage of air or the friction of bodies; nor is it a letter
which is enunciated through the opening and closing of lips and the
movement of the tongue.

And that the Koran, the original Torah, the original Gospel of Jesus,
and the original Psalms are His Books sent down upon His
Messengers, peace be upon them.

The Koran is read by tongues, written in books, and remembered
in the heart, yet it is, nevertheless ancient, subsisting in the Essence
of Allah, not subject to division and or separation through its
transmission to the heart and paper (by this he meant that the
movement of the reciter's tongue and his management of the flow
of air in his mouth and ear etc., or the writer's inscription upon
paper, all of which are created. Whereas the logic of Ghazali
addresses what is beyond this human quality and dimension of
time and physic. Thereby he refers to the Koran before one's
movement of the tongue or transcription onto paper. Most errors
have come from our human dimensions, and that we try to
describe Divine attributes through our own limited human attributes
- Darwish.) Moses - Allah praised him and gave him peace - heard
the Speech of Allah without sound and without letter, just as the
righteous see the Essence of Allah - the High - in the Hereafter,
without substance or its quality.

And since He has these qualities, He is Living, Knowing, Willing,
Hearing, Seeing and Speaking with life, power, knowledge, will,
hearing, sight, and speech, not solely through His Essence.

7. DEEDS

He, the Exalted, the High, there is no existence except Him, unless
it occurs by His action and proceeds from His Justice, in the best,
perfect, complete and just ways.

He is Wise in His verdicts. His justice is not to be compared with
that of worshipers, because it is conceivable that the worshiper is
unjust when he deals with properties of other than his own.
But, harm is not conceivable from Allah - the High - because He
does not encounter any ownership of other than Himself, in which
His dealing could be described to be harmful.

Everything besides Him, children of Adam and jinn, angels and
devils, heaven and earth, animals, plants, and inanimates,
substance and its quality, as well as things perceived and things
felt, are all originated things which He created by His Power and
before they were nothing, since He existed in Eternity alone and
there was nothing whatsoever with Him.

So He originated creation thereafter as a manifestation of His Power
and a realization of that which had preceded of His Will and the
realization of His Word in eternity, not because He had any need or
necessity for it.

He is magnanimous in creating and inventing and in imposing
obligations, not doing it through necessity.

He is Gracious in beneficence and reform, though not through any
need. Munificence and Kindness, Beneficence and Grace are His,
since He is able to bring upon His creatures all manner of torture
and to try them with all kinds of pain and affliction. Even if He
should do this, it would be justice from Him, it would not be vile, it
would not be tyrannous.

He - the Mighty, the Glorified - rewards His believing worshipers for
their acts of obedience according to generosity and
encouragement rather than according to their merit and obligation.
For there is no obligation upon Him in any deed towards anyone
and tyranny is inconceivable in Him.
For there is no right upon Him towards anyone.

As for His right to be obeyed it is obligatory and binding upon all
creatures because He made it obligatory upon them through the
tongues of His prophets and not by reason. But He sent His
prophets and showed their truthfulness through explicit miracles,
and they conveyed His commands and prohibitions as well as His
promises and threats. So it became obligatory upon all creatures to
believe them and what they brought.

(B) THE MEANING OF THE SECOND PHRASE OF WITNESSING WHICH
IS THE WITNESSING FOR THE MESSENGERS AND THEIR MESSAGE.

Allah sent the unlettered, of Quraish, Prophet Muhammad - praise
and peace be upon him -with His Message for Arabs and non-Arabs
alike, to the jinn and humanity. Therefore Allah superseded other
religions by the Religion of Prophet Muhammad - praise and peace
be upon him - except that which He confirmed amongst them.

He favored Prophet Muhammad over all other prophets and made
him the master of mankind, and declared incomplete any
profession of faith which attests to Oneness, which is "There is no
god except Allah," unless it is followed by the witness to the
Messenger, which is your saying, "Muhammad is the Messenger of
Allah." He obligated all nations to believe in everything he informed
of the affairs of here and the Hereafter.

Allah will not accept the belief of any one (worshiper) until he
believes in that which the Prophet informed of the affairs that occur
after death, the first of which is the question of the angels Munkar
and Nakeer. These are two awesome and terrifying beings who will
make the deceased sit up in the grave, both soul and body; they
will ask him about the Oneness of Allah and about the Message,
asking, "Who is your Lord, and what is your Religion, and who is
your prophet?" They are also known as the two examiners of the
grave and their questions are considered as the first trial after
death.

Again, one should believe in the punishment of the grave, and that
it is real and that His Ruling is just over both the body and soul in
accordance with His Will.

And one should believe in the Scale with the two pans with its
indicator - the magnitude of which is like the stages of the Heavens
and the earth - in it, the deeds are weighed by the Power of Allah,
and its weights or measures are the mustard seed and the atom, in
order to establish exact justice.

The records of good deeds will be placed in a fine image in the
scale of light, and then the balance will be heavy according to its
rank with Allah, by His Virtue.

The records of the evil deeds will be cast in an evil image in the
scale of darkness, and they will be light in the balance through the
Justice of Allah.

One should believe also that the Bridge is real; it is a Bridge
stretched over Hell, sharper than the edge of the sword and finer
than a hair. The feet of the unbelievers slip on it, according to the
decree of Allah - the Exalted - and they will fall into the Fire; but the
feet of the believers stand firm upon it, by the Grace of Allah, and so
they are driven into the Everlasting residence.

And one should believe in the frequented pool, the Pool of Prophet
Muhammad - Allah has praised and given him peace -. From which
the believers will drink before entering Paradise and after crossing
over the Bridge. Whoever drinks a single mouthful from it will never
thirst again. Its width is the distance of one month's journey; its
waters are whiter than milk and sweeter than honey. Around it are
ewers in number like the stars of the sky, and into it flow two
springs from al-Kawthar.

And one should believe in the Judgement and the distinctions
between those in it, that some will be closely questioned, that some
will be treated with forgiveness and that others will enter Paradise
without questioning - these are the nearest.

Allah will ask whomsoever He will of the prophets concerning the
deliverance of the Message, and whosoever of the unbelievers
concerning their rejection of the Messengers; and He will ask the
innovators concerning the way of the Prophet (sunnah) and the
Muslims concerning their deeds.

One should believe that the believer in the Oneness of Allah (if he
enters Hell on account of his sins) will be released from Hell fire
after he has been punished, so that there will not remain in Hell one
single believer.

One should believe in the intercession of the prophets, of the
learned, and of the martyrs, then the rest of the believers - each
according to his influence and rank before Allah.

Whosoever remains of the believers and has no intercessor will be
released through the Grace of Allah, the Mighty, the Glorified.

Therefore not one single believer will abide in Hell forever;
whosoever has in his heart the weight of an atom of belief will be
brought out from there.

One should believe the virtues of the Companions - may Allah be
pleased with them - and their different ranks, and that the most
excellent of mankind, after the Prophet - Allah praised and gave him
peace - is Abu-Bakr, and then 'Umar, and then 'Uthman, and then 'Ali
- may Allah be pleased with them - and one should think well of all
the Companions and praise them, just as Allah - the Mighty, the
Glorified - and His Prophet praised them all - Allah has praised the
Prophet and given him peace -.
All these were reported in the news and witnessed traditions (of
the Prophet). Therefore whosoever believes in all this and believes
in it without doubting will be among the people of truth and the
congregation of the Way of the Prophet (sunnah), and indeed has
separated themself from the followers of error and party of
innovation.

So we ask Allah to perfect our faith and make us steadfast in the
Religion for us and for all Muslims through His Mercy. Truly He is
the Most Merciful. And may the praise of Allah be upon our Master
Muhammad and upon every chosen worshiper.

 
2 THE GRADUATION OF GUIDANCE
  AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE STAGES OF BELIEF

You should know that what we have already mentioned under the
Exposition of the Creed should be presented to children in their
early years in order that they may commit it to memory. Its
meaning will continue to be unfolded before them little by little as
they grow older.

The first step is to commit it to memory, after which comes
understanding, then belief, then certainty and realization, all of
which are ingrained in the child without proof.

Allah - the Exalted - from His Virtue over the heart of the human
being has widened it by preparing the heart from the beginning for
belief without the need for any argument or proof.

How can this be denied when all the articles of faith of the people
are based upon pure repetition and imitation.

Yes, a belief which results from pure imitation may not be free of
some weakness at the beginning, in that it can be shaken and
impaired by its opposite whenever it is presented.

It should, therefore, be strengthened and confirmed in the heart of
the child and the layman until it becomes well established and
unshakable.

The way to strengthen and confirm it does not lie in learning the art
of debate and dogmatic theology. Rather, to be busy with the
recitation of the Koran and its explanation, and reading the
Prophetic quotations and their meanings. Also, being busy in the
performance of religious duties and acts of worship.

It is in this way that one's belief continues to increase and become
well established through the proofs and arguments heard from the
Koran.

It is also increased through the explanation of the prophetic
quotations with their merits. As well as it is increased by the light of
worshiping, the fulfillment of obligatory duties and through
observing the pious, by keeping company with them, listening to
them, observing their stages and manners in obedience to Allah -
the Mighty, the Glorified - the way in which they fear Him, and
humble themselves before Him.

So the first repetition was like the sowing of seeds in the heart and
what followed is like its watering and nursing until it grew and was
raised as a good tree having well established roots with branches
reaching up into the air.

The senses of the child should also be guarded with utmost care
against argumentation and dogmatic theology, because what
argumentation impairs is greater than what it repairs. What it
corrupts is greater than what it reforms. In fact, strengthening the
child through argumentation is like striking a tree with an iron ax in
the hope that it will strengthen it. In such a way limbs are broken off
that can lead to either its destruction, or, most probably impair its
growth.

Seeing should, in this case, suffice as a reason.

Compare then the faith of the good, the righteous and the common
person to that of those of dogmatic theology and debators. You
will find that the belief of the ordinary person is as firm as a high
mountain which is moved neither by storm nor lightning. On the
other hand, the belief of those of dogmatic theology and he who
guards his belief with the classified debate is like a thread hanging
in the air, blown to and fro by the wind.

This is true of all except those who have heard the proof of faith
and have accepted it through fellowship, just as they have taken
hold of belief itself and accepted it through fellowship, since there
is no difference in fellowship between learning the proof or the
proved.

Learning the proof is one thing; arriving at it through independent
thinking is another which is far from it.

If the child were to be brought up on this firm belief then occupy
himself with gaining his livelihood, he might not be more
enlightened. But according to the belief of the people of the truth he
will be saved.

This is because the Religion did not obligate the uncivilized Arabs
more than believing and certifying in the apparent articles of belief.

They were never obligated to research, inquire, nor to be burdened
with the classification of arguments.

However, if one wishes to be among the travelers along the path
of the Hereafter in order to be fortunate, one would be able to
continue to act in accordance with one's knowledge by holding fast
to piety, restraining one's soul from lust, practicing self-discipline
and self-mortification. Then avenues of guidance would be opened
which would reveal the realities of this belief through the Divine
Light cast into one's heart through self-mortification in fulfillment of
the promise of Allah who said: "Those who struggle in Our Cause,
We will surely guide them to Our ways; and Allah is with those who
do good." (Ch.29:69). This is, in truth, the precious pearl which is
the ultimate goal of the belief of the sincere and those close to
Allah.

It is the precious secret which rested in the heart of Abu Bakr al
Siddiq - may Allah be pleased with him - and by which he excelled
all others.

The revelation of this secret, rather, these secrets, have different
stages, that depend upon the degree of self-mortification and upon
the degree in which the inner self is clean and free of things other
than Allah - the High - as well as upon obtaining guidance by means
of the light of faith.

This is just like the differences which exist among mankind in the
comprehension of the mysteries of medicine, jurisprudence and
the other sciences because their differences vary with their
diligence and with their natural brilliance and prudence. Just as the
former variations are not limited, so are the latter not limited.

For example, if you ask whether the study of argumentation and
scholastic theology is blameworthy, like astrology, or that it is
permissible or commendable, then, you should know that in this
particular respect men go to excess and exaggeration on both
sides. Some say that it is an innovation and unlawful and that,
excluding the sin of polytheism, it is better for the worshiper to face
the Creator guilty of every offense except that of Greek based logic
of theology. Others say that it is an obligation and an ordinance
either an Islamic public mandate or individual mandate. Therefore
it is the best form of deed and the highest kind of obligation, and
that it is the verification of the science of Oneness and the
safeguard of the Religion of Allah - the High -.

Among the famous jurisprudists who hold it unlawful are al Shafi,
Malik, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Sufyan and all the scholars of the
Prophetic quotations.

Ibn Abd al A'la - may Allah be pleased with him - said, "On the day
Al Shafi' - may Allah be pleased with him - debated with Hafs Al
Fard, a Mu'tazilite theologian, Al Shafi' said: 'Excluding the sin of
polytheism it is better for the worshiper to face his Creator guilty of
every offense than to stand before Him with a little scholastic
theology (the science of Divinity). I have also heard Hafs say things
which I cannot repeat." He added, "I have discovered among the
scholastic theologians things which I never expected to find.
Excepting the sin of polytheism, if the worshiper is tried with all the
prohibitions it is better for him than looking into scholastic
theology."

Al Karabisi related that al Shafi' - may Allah be pleased with him -
was once asked about some of the scholastic theology and
became infuriated and said, "Ask Hafs al Fard and his cohorts
about this - may Allah dishonor them -." When al Shafi' - may Allah
be pleased with him - was taken ill, Hafs came to him and asked:
"Who am I?" He replied, "You are Hafs al-Fard - may Allah neither
protect you nor take you under His auspices until you repent of
your sins." He added: "If people only but knew what predilections
lurk in scholastic theology they would run away from it as they
would run away from a lion." And added, "Whenever I hear a man
say that the "name" is "the named" or different from "the named" I
bear witness that he is one of the people of scholastic theology and
that he has no religion."

Al Za'farani related that al Shafi' once said, "My judgment
concerning the scholastic theologians is that they should be beaten
with palm branches and carried in that condition among the tribes
and clans. While pronouncing "this is the penalty of those who
desert the Koran and the prophetic sayings and take themselves
to scholastic theology."

Ahmad ibn-Hanbal, said, "A scholastic theologian never succeeds.
You cannot find anyone who, having dabbled in scholastic
theology, without unsoundness in his heart." He was so strong in its
condemnation that he ostracized al Harith al Muhasibi, in spite of
the latter's asceticism and piety, because he wrote a work on the
refutation of heresy, in which he told him, "Woe unto you. Do you
not first state their heretical beliefs and then answer them, thereby
compelling men to study these heresies and to ponder over these
dubiosities, all of which will draw them into self opinionation and
research."

Ahmad - may Allah have mercy on him - also said, "The scholastic
theologians are heretics." Malik - may Allah have mercy on him -
said "Have you seen how, when one of stronger argument
confronts him he will discard his religion for a new one every day?"
In other words, the position of the debators is changing. Malik - may
Allah have mercy on him - also said, "The testimony of the people
of innovation and heretics is not permissible." In interpreting this,
some of his companions said that he meant by heretics the
scholastic theologians, no matter whichever doctrine they might
belong.

Abu-Yusuf said, "He who seeks knowledge through dogmatic
theology will become a heretic. Al-Hasan said, "Neither argue with
heretics, associate with them nor listen to them." Upon this the
scholar of the prophetic quotations in the first era have been
unanimous. The narrations which came down to us from them are
innumerable. They have said that the companions refrained from
it although they are more knowledgeable of the realities and more
capable of mastering the wording than others because they knew
what evil would come out of it.

For this reason the Prophet - praise and peace be upon him - said,
"Destroyed are those who split hairs! Destroyed are those who split
hairs! Destroyed are those who split hairs! And these are those
who are extravagant in investigation and research."

Also they proved by saying that if this subject were an integral part
of Religion the Messenger of Allah - praise and peace be upon him
- would have considered it to be the most important thing to
command his Companions to address themselves with, and would
have taught them its ways. He would have also praised it and
commended its founders.

One must bear in mind that he even taught how one should clean
oneself after relieving oneself and urged them to study the law of
inheritance and commended them on it. He forbade them from
speaking on destiny.

And he said: "Refrain concerning destiny." And accordingly the
Companions did so - may Allah be pleased with them -.

Needless to say, to add to what the teacher set forth is harm and
error; the Companions are our teachers and our example, and we
are their followers and students.

The other group proved that the forbidden in the scholastic
theology are such terms as substance and substance's quality and
the other strange terms with which the Companions - may Allah be
pleased with them - were not familiar.

But the matter is not difficult to explain, because there is not a single
branch of knowledge in which new terms have not been
introduced for the sake of conveying meanings.

For example, the Science of Prophetic Quotations, the Science of
interpretation, and the Science of Jurisprudence. Had the recipients
encountered terms such as refutation, invalidation, composition,
deduction, and false collocation, as well as the other questions
which are brought as evidence by analogy, they would not
comprehend them.

Therefore the introduction of new terms to signify a definite
meaning is just as legitimate as inventing vessels with a new shape
and form for use in permissible usages.

If it is the meaning of these terms which is forbidden, we do not
mean to attain through them anything except the knowledge of the
proofs for the creation of the universe, the Oneness of the Creator,
and His Attributes as they are mentioned in the Religion.

Since when, is it unlawful to know Allah - the High - with the proof?
But if it is sectarianism, fanaticism, enmity, hatred, and all that
dogmatic theologies and controversy breed which are meant and
intended, then these are unlawful and should be guarded against
and avoided, just as pride, conceit, hypocrisy, and the desire for
power which the sciences of the Prophetic Quotations, Koran
interpretation, and jurisprudence breed are unlawful and should be
guarded against and avoided.

Nevertheless, some of the knowledge should not be prohibited
because of the methods. How then is mentioning the proof or
requesting it or searching for it prohibited, when Allah said, "Say:
Bring your proof" And He - the Mighty, the Glorified - said "that he
who would perish might perish by clear proof, and he who would
live might live by clear proof." And He - the High - said: "Have you
any authority for this?" In other words a proof. And He - the High -
said: "Say: 'For Allah is the overwhelming proof.'" And He - the High
- said: "Have you not seen him who disputed with Abraham about
his Lord" up to "He who disbelieved became pale" When He - the
Exalted - mentioned how Abraham presented the proof in debating
and gained the upper hand over his opponent in a matter that
praises Abraham.

And He - the Mighty, the Glorified - said: "This is Our proof, We give
it to Abraham over his nation." And He - the High - said: "They said:
'O Noah, you have debated us a lot." And He - the High - said in
Pharoah's story "And who is the Lord of the World" up to "even if I
bring to you something clear" Briefly, the Koran, from its beginning
to its end, is an argument with the unbelievers.

The greatest proof of theologians for the Oneness of Allah is His
Saying: "Had there been in either (Heaven or earth) gods besides
Allah, both would have surely gone to ruin." Their greatest proof
for the prophecy is, "And if you are in doubt as to that which We
have sent down to our worshiper (Prophet Muhammad), then
produce a chapter like it." Their greatest proof for the resurrection
is, "Say: He shall give life to them Who originated them at first." And
so on of the rest of the verses and the proofs.

Thus the prophets - the praise of Allah be upon them - did not cease
to debate with the unbelievers and dispute with them. Allah said,
"Dispute with them in the kindest manner." The Companions - may
Allah be pleased with them - too used to debate and dispute with
the unbelievers, but only when necessary. During the time of the
Companions the need for disputation was minimal.

The first to establish the precedence of summoning innovators
back to truth by means of debate and argument was 'Ali ibn abi
Talib - may Allah be pleased with him - when he sent ibn Abbas to
the Kharijites. Ibn Abbas argued with them saying, "What, you rebel
against your leader?" They replied, "He has fought, but did not turn
the prisoners to be slaves nor took the spoils of war." Ibn Abbas
explained to them that prisoners and spoils are taken only in a war
against unbelievers, adding, "Would any of you, if Lady A'isha - may
Allah be pleased with her - had been taken captive on the Day of
the Camel, and if she had fallen to his lot, have deemed it lawful to
deal with her as he dealt with his own property while she is
referred to in the Koran as your mother?" They answered "No," and
consequently two thousand of them returned to be obedient.

It was also reported that al Hasan once debated with a Qadarite
(who denied predestination) with the result that the latter repented.
Similarly, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib - may Allah honor his face - also debated
with a Qadarite.

It is also reported that 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud - may Allah be pleased
with him - debated with Yazid ibn 'Amirah on the subject of belief.
'Abdullah said: "If I say that I am a believer it will be like saying that
I am in Paradise." Thereupon Yazid ibn 'Amirah said to him, "O
Companion of the Messenger of Allah, what is belief except to
believe in Allah, His angels, Books and Messengers, as well as in
resurrection and the scales, and to perform the prayers, keep the
fast, and pay the obligatory charity. Yet we have sins which, if we
knew that they will be forgiven us, we would know that we will be
of the people of Paradise. For this reason we say that we are
believers, but we do not say that we are from the people of
Paradise." Ibn Mas'ud replied, "By Allah, you have said the truth; this
was a mistake on my part." Thus it should be said that the
Companions immersed little in the debating and this they did for a
short time and not as a long time necessity nor by the way of
authorship, teaching it or taking it as a profession. Furthermore this
limiting practicing on their part was due to little need for it as
innovation did not appear in their time.

They addressed themselves to it briefly because their only
purpose was to silence the adversary and compel him to admit his
error; they aimed at revealing the truth and removing dubiosities.
Yet, whenever the confusion of the adversary persisted or he
insisted in continuing in error, they prolonged their argument, never
reckoning, as it were once they started they could not measure the
need or the weight.

Their not applying themselves to teaching and writing about it is not
unlike their custom with regard to jurisprudence, interpretation of
Koran, and prophetic quotations. Therefore, if it is permissible to
compose books on jurisprudence and to work out rare hypothetical
cases which seldom arise, either as a preparation for the time when
it is needed, or simply to sharpen the wits. It is also permissible for
us to classify the methods of disputation in preparation for the time
when dubiosities flare up or an innovator runs loose; or simply to
sharpen the wits or have the argument ready so that when needed
it will be within reach of all just as the preparation of armaments for
war before the day of battle.

This is practically all that can be said on behalf of the two groups
(the proponents and the opponents of dogmatic theology).

1. RULINGS CONCERNING DEBATE

If you ask me what I think the best is: I will say that the truth of the
matter is that those who condemn it absolutely and under all
circumstances as well as those who praise it absolutely and
unreservedly are wrong. The matter should be more carefully
detailed.

You should know then, that first of all a thing, such as wine or
carrion, may be pronounced unlawful from its very nature. What I
mean by 'its very nature' is that the cause of its being pronounced
unlawful is a quality inherent in it. Intoxication and death. If we were
asked concerning these two things, we would not hesitate to say
that they were absolutely unlawful, and would in no way think of
allowing carrion to be eaten in time of desperation, nor ever think
of permitting the drinking of wine when a person starts to choke
over a mouthful of food and finds nothing with which to swallow it
besides wine.

In the second place a thing may be pronounced unlawful for some
other reason, such as underselling your Muslim brother during the
period of option, trading during the call to prayer, or eating earth
which is pronounced unlawful because of its harmful effect. Such
things are divided into those which are harmful both in small and
large quantities, and are therefore pronounced unlawful. For
example, poison which is fatal whether in small or large quantity;
and those which are harmful only when taken in excess like, for
example, honey, which can be harmful to a feverish patient. The
same is true of eating earth. Therefore, in pronouncing wine
absolutely unlawful, only the most general cases were taken into
consideration. In the event that something new arises, it will be well
to consider the detailing.

We return now to the science of scholastic theology to say that it
has benefits and harm.

With regard to its usefulness whenever it is useful it is either lawful,
commendable, or obligatory, as the occasion demands. As to its
harm, whenever it is harmful it is unlawful. Its harm lies in raising
doubts and undermining the articles of faith by moving them out
from the realm of certitude and determination. These things are
happening at the beginning and their restoration by means of proof
is doubtful. Furthermore, it varies with the individual. Therefore it is
true that it is harmful to the faith.

Yet it has another harmful influence which manifests itself in
confirming the belief of the heretics in their heresies and
establishing them in their hearts so that their claims increase and
their insistence on them becomes more stubborn. This kind of
harm, however, results from the fanaticism which disputation
arouses. For this reason you find that the lay heretic can, through
kindness, be easily dissuaded from his error in no time. But if he
were brought up in a town where disputation and fanaticism
abound it will be impossible for both the past and current
generation to remove the heresy from his heart, their combined
efforts notwithstanding. On the contrary, passion, fanaticism, hatred
of the adversaries of disputation and non-conformist groups prevail
over his heart and prevent him from comprehending the truth so
that even if he were told, "Do you want Allah to remove for you the
veil and to reveal to you through seeing that the truth is on the side
of your adversary?" he would dislike it for fear that his adversary
would be gladened by it. This, then, is the chronic disease which
has spread among men all over the land. It is a kind of corruption
which is set in motion by the disputants through their fanaticism.
That is its harm.

As to its benefits some think that it is useful in revealing realities
and knowing them as they really are. But how far from the truth this
is, because the fulfillment of noble desire is not found in disputation.
In fact the perplexity and confusion consequent on disputation
surpass anything which it may reveal or unfold.
If you were to hear that from a scholar of the prophetic quotations
or a semi-scholar you would think that men are the enemies of that
of which they are ignorant.

Take it, then, from one who has familiarized himself with
disputation and, after a careful study and a thorough investigation
of it in which he surpassed the extreme limits of its masters and
went even further to study in great detail other cognate subjects,
has come to dislike it, and has ascertained that the road to the
realities of knowledge is closed from this direction.

Disputation, as a matter of fact, will inevitably reveal, unfold and
clarify a few things, but this is very rare and only occurs in simple
and clear matters which are readily understood even before any
thorough study of the art of disputation. It has only one benefit. It
preserves the belief for the ordinary people and safeguards it
against the confusion of innovators by different kinds of
argumentation. For the layman is swayed by the argument of the
innovator although the argument may be false; and to confront a
false position with another refutes it. People are expected to follow
this belief which we have already mentioned because the Religion
has ordained it for the good of their temporal and spiritual lives and
because the good early generations agreed on it.

The learned are expected to watch over it for the ordinary people
against the ambiguities of the innovators, just as the magistrates are
expected to safeguard their property against the attacks of the
oppressors and ravishers.

When both its harm and benefit are fully understood, one should be
like the physician who is adept in the use of dangerous drugs,
which he does not apply except to the right place and only at the
time of desparation.

To explain further, the laymen and the ordinary people who are
engaged in crafts and trades should be left alone in the integrity of
their beliefs which they have accepted when they were instructed
in the faith which we have already stated. To teach them
disputation is decidedly harmful to them as it will perhaps arouse
doubts in their minds which will shake their belief. Once these
doubts are aroused it will not be possible to remedy their shaken
belief.

As to the layman who believes in a certain innovation, he should be
called back to the truth with kindness and tact and not with
fanaticism, with soft words which are convincing to the soul and
effective in the heart, words similar to those of the arguments of the
Koran and the prophetic quotations, mixed with a little admonition
and warning. This is much better than debate along the line set
down by the scholastic theologians. This is because the layman,
when he hears such arguments, thinks that they are a kind of
technique in disputation which the disputant has learned in order to
draw men to his belief. Consequently, if the layman fails to reply to
these arguments he will assume that the scholastic theologians of
his school are capable of refuting them. Disputation with both this
man and the former is unlawful.

Likewise it is unlawful to argue with one who has fallen victim to
doubt, since doubt should be removed with kindness by
admonition and understandable proofs free of excessive
speculation and endless debate. In fact disputation is useful in only
one case, namely, when the layman has been persuaded to believe
in an innovation through one kind of argument, in which case it
should be countered by the same kind of argument in order to
recall the person to the truth. This, however, applies to those who -
because of their fondness of disputation - are no longer satisfied
with the ordinary admonitions and warnings, but have reached a
stage where nothing will cure them except debate. Consequently
it is permissible to argue with them. But in a country where heresy
is rare and one rite prevails, it should be sufficient to state the
articles of faith which we have already mentioned, without any
attempt to take up the question of proofs. The person should wait
until something questionable arises before he takes up the
question of proofs which he should present according to the need.
If the heresy were a common one and a fear existed that the
children might be beguiled with it, then there would be no harm in
teaching them the equivalent of what we have included in part of
this book entitled "The Jerusalem Message" (al-Risalah al- Qudsiyah),
as a means for overcoming the influence of the disputations of
innovators if that influence should confront the children.

This is a brief thing which we included in this book because of its
brevity. If the child were bright and therefore became aware of a
certain question or grew skeptical of something in his mind, then
the feared disease has appeared and the malady has become
visible. There will be no harm, then, to promote the child to the
equivalent of that which we have included in the book entitled
al-lqtisad fi al-I'tiqad (The Mid-way Belief), which is free from any
departures from a discussion of the foundations of the articles of
faith to the other investigations of the scholastic theologians. If this
convinces the child then he might be left alone; but if this should fail
to convince him, then the disease has become chronic, the malady
rooted, and the epidemic widespread. Let, then, the physician be as
kind and tactful as possible, and let him await the Will of Allah until,
through His Grace, the truth shall be revealed to the child. Otherwise
he will persist in his doubt and skepticism.

The material contained in that book and others of the same kind is
that from which benefit can be expected. Chapters not confined to
the same subject are of two kinds.

The first comprises chapters which deal with subjects other than
the foundations of the articles of faith, such as those which discuss
propensity, transmutations and the different kinds of perceptions or
discoursing on sight, whether or not it has an opposite which is
called obstruction or blindness. If this obstruction does exist, then
it will be an obstruction (which prevents the eye) from (seeing) all
invisible things, or a proof which verifies every visible thing that can
be seen, as well as other misleading trivialities.

The second kind of these chapters contains a further expansion of
the same arguments as applied to other subjects, together with
several questions and answers - details which add nothing but
confusion and perplexity to him who has not already been
convinced by the previous material. For there are certain things
which become more obscure with dilation and expansion.

If one were to say that the investigation into the rules of perceptions
and propensities is useful for sharpening the mind which is the
instrument of Religion just as the sword is the instrument of Holy
war (jihad), hence there is no harm in sharpening it, it will be like
saying that playing chess, because it sharpens the mind, is a part
of Religion. This, however, is insane because the mind may be
sharpened through the other sciences of the Religion in which
there is no fear of harm or injury.

By this you see how much of scholastic theology is blameworthy
and how much is praiseworthy, the conditions wherein it is
condemned and these wherein it is praised, as well as the persons
who are benefited by it and the persons who are harmed. If you
should then say that, since you acknowledge the need for it in
refuting the arguments of the innovators, and since innovations
have now risen and calamities spread, the need for it has become
urgent, it is inevitable that undertaking this science should become
an Islamic public mandate just as undertaking to safeguard
property and other rights and fulfilling the duties of justice and
government and the rest. And unless the learned men engage in
spreading and teaching this science and in making research in it,
it will not endure; and if it were completely abandoned, it would
surely disappear; nor is there in human nature by itself a sufficient
ability to cut through the dubiosities of innovators unless this
subject is learnt and studied. Therefore there should be instruction
in it, and its investigation is now one of the Islamic public mandate,
contrary to what it was at the time of the Companions when the
need for it was not urgent.

If you should say this, then know that the truth of the matter is that
undoubtedly there should be, in every town, someone who would
undertake to engage in this science and take it upon himself to
refute the dubiosities of the innovators which have spread in that
particular town. This undertaking is performed through education,
but it is not wise to instruct the laity in it just as they are instructed
in jurisprudence and interpretation. For this is like a drug, and
jurisprudence is like food. The harm of food is not dangerous but
the harm of drugs is dangerous as we have already mentioned.

The learned people of this science should confine their instruction
to men who have the three following traits: The first is devotion to
knowledge and passion for it; for the working man is prevented by
his work from mastering the subject completely and from dispelling
doubts when they arise.

The second trait is sagacity, intelligence, and eloquence, because
those with lessor intellect do not benefit by his understanding and
the dull one does not gain by his argument. On the contrary such
a person is injured by disputation and should not expect any good
from it.

The third trait is that the man should by nature be good, religious,
and pious; he should not be dominated by passions, because the
sinful man would stray from Religion at the least provocation.
Passions would do away with all deterrents and remove the barrier
which stands between him and worldly pleasures. He would not be
keen on dispelling anything questionable, but rather would seize
upon it to free himself from any obligation. The things which such
a student will spoil would be greater than those which he would
reform.

When you know these divisions you would realize that, in
disputation the praiseworthy argument is of the same kind as the
arguments of the Koran, kind words which influence the hearts and
convince the minds without going deeply into reasoning and
analyses which most people do not understand; and whenever
they understand them they consider them trickeries and artifices
which their proponent has learnt in order to make things
ambiguous. Should he be confronted by one of his professional
colleagues he would resist him.

You will also know that al Shafi' and all the good, early generation
were forbidden from engaging in disputation and devoting
themselves exclusively to it, because of the harm inherent in it
which we have already pointed out. The reports of ibn Abbas'
debate with the Kharijites and Ali's debate concerning free will was
of the clear and intelligent kind, carried out at the time of need. Such
disputation is praiseworthy under all conditions.

Undoubtedly the need for disputation differs with the time; therefore
it is not unlikely that the rule which governs it should also differ.
This then is the rule of the creed which Allah imposed on mankind
and the method of defending and preserving it.

As to dispelling doubts, revealing truths, knowing things as they
really are, and comprehending the mysteries which the words of
this belief signify, there is no way to attain any of them except
through self-mortification and the subduing of passions, through
seeking Allah whole heartedly and persisting in thoughts which are
free from the blemishes of disputation. They are a mercy from Allah
which comes to those who expose themselves to its beneficence
according to what Allah ordained for them and the extent to which
they had exposed themselves to it as well as the capacity of their
hearts and the degree of their purity. This is the sea the depth of
which cannot be sounded and the waters of which cannot be
traversed.

2. REALITY AND RELIGION

If you say that this discourse implies that these sciences have
external as well as internal meanings, that some of them are
obvious and readily understood, while others are hidden and
become evident through self-mortification, discipline, earnest desire,
pure thinking and a heart free from all worldly activities except
those which are required, and conclude that such discourse is
almost contrary to the Religion because the Religion does not have
external and internal meanings, secret and manifest, but the
external and the internal, the secret and the manifest, are in it all the
same. Then you should know that the division of these sciences
into hidden and obvious is not denied by anyone of any insight but
is denied by the ignorant who, having acquired some knowledge
in their youth, did not advance any further and consequently failed
to gain promotion to the lofty heights where lie the stations of the
learned men and the spiritual sheikhs.

This is evident from the testimony of the Religion as the Prophet
said, "Indeed, there is an external meaning and an internal meaning
to the Koran, a scope and a point." 'Ali, pointing to his breast, said,
"Indeed, herein lies abundant knowledge; would that there were
some to (comprehend and) transmit it." The Prophet also said, "We
prophets were ordered to communicate with everyone according
to his ability to understand." And again, "No one has ever recited a
prophetic quotation to a people which their minds have failed to
grasp without it being a temptation for them." Allah says: "And we
strike these similitudes for the people, but none understands them
except those who know." Ch.29:42 Koran.

The Prophet - the praise and peace be upon him - said, "Indeed,
knowledge has a branch which resembles a hidden thing; no one
grasps it except those who know Allah." And again, "If you only
knew what I know, you would laugh a little and weep much." If this
had not been a secret which he was forbidden to divulge because
of the inability of the minds to comprehend it, why then did he not
explain it to them, especially as they would have certainly believed
him if he had done so? In connection with the interpretation of the
Words of Allah, "It is Allah who has created the seven heavens and
of earth their like; and between them the Command descends...."
(Ch.65:12 Koran). Ibn Abbas said, "Were I to relate its interpretation
you would stone me." In another transmission, "you would have
said, 'He is an unbeliever'." Abu-Hurayrah said, "I have received
from the Prophet of Allah two things, one of which I have made
public. Were I to divulge the other, this throat would be cut." The
Prophet - the praise and peace be upon him - said, "Abu-Bakr has
excelled you not by excessive fasting and much prayer, but by a
secret which rests in his chest." No doubt this secret was
connected with the foundations of Religion and not removed from
it. And whatever belonged to the foundations of Religion could not
have been hidden from the other Companions through its outward
form.

Sahl al-Tustari - may Allah be pleased with him - said, "The learned
person possesses three kinds of knowledge: visible knowledge
which he imparts to people in general; invisible knowledge which
he cannot reveal except to its own people; and finally a confidential
knowledge which lies between him and His Lord and which he
cannot reveal to anyone." One of the gnostics said, "To divulge the
secret of the Lord is equivalent to unbelief." Some one also said,
"The Lord has a secret, if revealed, prophecy will become obsolete.
Prophecy has a secret, if divulged, knowledge will become useless,
and the learned people of Allah have a secret, if disclosed, the
Religion will become of no force." If he who had said this did not
mean thereby the futility of prophecy as far as those with lessor
intellect are concerned because of their inability to understand, then
what he said is not true. Rather, that which is true is free of
contradiction. The perfect man is he whose knowledge does not
destroy his piety, and the road to piety is through the prophecy.

You may say, "These verses and prophetic quotations may be
subject to several interpretations. Show us, then, how their visible
meaning differs from the invisible. For if the visible is contradictory
to the invisible, it will destroy the Religion, which is exactly the
position of those who say that reality is contrary of the Religion.
This is unbelief because the Religion represents the visible and
reality represents the invisible. If the one is neither contradictory to,
nor in disagreement with the other, then both are identical.
Therefore the division (of knowledge into obvious and hidden,
visible and invisible) is hereby destroyed and the Religion will have
no secret (meaning) which should not be divulged. Rather both the
hidden and the obvious will be the same." If you inquire, then you
should know that this question raises a grave issue and leads into
the science of Revelation departing from the intent of the science
of practical Religion which is the purpose of these books. For the
articles of faith which we have already mentioned come under the
deeds of the heart which we are required to receive with
acceptance and consent, by fixing the heart on them and adhering
to them, not by endeavoring to comprehend their realities, since
this was not required of all people.

Were it not a part of practical Religion we would not have
mentioned it in this book, and were it not one of the outward deeds
of the heart we would not have mentioned it in the first half of the
book. Real (and complete) revelation is an attribute of the essence
of the heart and its inward part. But if the discussion leads to the
stirring up of doubt or the shadow of doubt concerning the
contradiction of the visible to the invisible, a brief word of
explanation becomes necessary. For he who says that reality
disagrees with the Religion and the invisible contradicts the visible
is closer to unbelief than to belief.

3. SECRETS CONCEALED BY THE PEOPLE OF ALLAH

In fact, the secrets whose comprehension is peculiar to the
favorites of Allah and the practice of which is limited to them and
which they do not divulge to the masses may be divided into five
categories.

The first is that the thing in itself is subtle and beyond the
comprehension of most hearts and minds. Consequently its
comprehension is restricted to the elite who should not divulge it to
those who are unable to grasp it lest, whenever their hearts fail to
comprehend it or to understand the concealed secrets of the spirit,
it becomes a calamity to them.

The Prophet himself refrained from explaining this part. The minds
fail to comprehend its reality and the imaginations to imagine its
truth. But do not think that this was not revealed to the Prophet of
Allah - the praise and peace be upon him - for he who does not
know the spirit does not know himself, and he who does not know
himself does not know his Creator.

It is not unlikely that this was revealed to some of the people who
are close to Allah and the learned men although they were not
prophets; but they disciplined themselves in the etiquette of the
Religion and held their peace in the matters where the Prophet - the
praise and peace be upon him - himself was silent. In fact there are
in the attributes of Allah many hidden things which are beyond the
comprehension and understanding of the crowds. Of these, the
Prophet of Allah - the praise and peace be upon him - did not
mention anything except those that are obvious to the minds, such
as knowledge and power and the like, which men understand in
terms of something akin to them and then suppose that they
performed the feat through their own knowledge and power,
especially since they possess certain qualities which are called
knowledge and power. Consequently they arrive at that by some
manner of analogy. But if the Prophet - the praise and peace be
upon him - mentioned some of the attributes of Allah to which men
have nothing akin and which do not resemble, even remotely,
anything they possess, they would not have understood them.
Thus, the pleasure of coition, if mentioned to the child or to the
impotent, will not be understood by them except in relation to the
pleasure of eating which they comprehend. This understanding,
however, will not be one of actual experience.

Furthermore, the difference between the Knowledge and Power of
Allah and human knowledge and power is greater than the
difference between the pleasure of coition and the pleasure of
eating. In short, mankind does not comprehend except themselves
and their own attributes which are present with them or were with
him in the past. By comparison and analogy with these they
understand the attributes of others. They will also realize that there
is a difference between their attributes and those of Allah in
nobleness and perfection. Therefore it is not within the power of
people but to declare as belonging to Allah what has been declared
as belonging to themselves, such as action, knowledge, and power
as well as other attributes and to acknowledge that in Allah they are
the most perfect and the most noble. Most of their emphasis would,
therefore, be on their own attributes rather than on those of Majesty
which belong exclusively to Allah.

For this reason the Prophet said, "I cannot count praising You as
You have praised Yourself. "This does not mean the inability to
express what I comprehend but rather an admission of the inability
to comprehend the Essence of the Majesty of Allah. For this reason
again someone said: "No one truly knows Allah except Allah
Himself." Abu-Bakr al-Siddiq said, "Praise be to Allah who has not
given men a way to know Him except through their inability to
know Him." Let us now, however, stop this kind of discussion and
go back to the main purpose, namely that one of these categories
comprises that which the minds fail to comprehend, such as the
spirit and some of the attributes of Allah. Perhaps the Prophet
refered to something of the same nature when he said, "His cover
is Light, if He reveals it, indeed, the Exaltation of His Face will burn
everything of His creation that His Sight reaches." (Darwish notes:
Christians are taught to believe and surrender their limited reason
and trust God. The same applies to Muslim scholars who believe
in the limitation of the brain and trust Allah and His Messengers so
the question remains: "Is there proof that God has a son which
came from Him Himself?" The answer in both Islam's Koran and
authentic, early Christian literature is that He does not. In the Koran
you will find a denial of such claim and that Allah told Prophet
Muhammad to tell the world "If the Merciful has a son, indeed I will
be the first one to worship him." Therefore the rejection is not
based upon malice or even the limitation of the brain that it fails to
comprehend, but it is based upon clear revelation which should be
considered by all.)

The second category of the hidden things which the prophets and
the people who are close to Allah decline to mention or divulge
comprises those things which are intelligible in themselves and the
minds do not fail to grasp, but their mention is harmful to most
hearers although it is not harmful to the prophets and the people
who are close to Allah.

The secret of the decrees of Allah which the learned men were
forbidden to divulge belongs to this part. Consequently it is not
unlikely that certain truths may be harmful to some people just as
the light of the sun is harmful to the eyes of bats and the perfume
of the rose is harmful to black-beetles. And how could this be
deemed unlikely when we know that our saying that unbelief,
adultery, sin, and evil exist all by the Will of Allah, which in itself is
true, but, nevertheless, has been harmful to many because it was
taken by them as an evidence for folly, lack of wisdom, and
approval of evil and wickedness? Thus has al-Rawandi as well as
several separatists, deviated from the right path by following such
heresies.
Similarly, if the secret of the decrees of Allah were divulged most
people would fancy that Allah is lacking in power, because their
minds are incapable of comprehending anything which will remove
that fancy.

Furthermore, if someone should discuss the Day of Resurrection
and should say that it will fall after a thousand years, or a few years
after or a few years before, his words would be understood.
Nevertheless the appointed time of the Day of Resurrection was
not foretold for the welfare of mankind and for fear of the harm
which might ensue. The (intervening) period may be long and the
appointed time very distant, with the result that people, thinking that
the Day of Recompense is remote, would cease to mind or care.
On the other hand it may be, in the Knowledge of Allah, close at
hand. If then, the appointed time should be foretold, people would
be greatly frightened with the result that they would neglect their
(daily) work and transactions and havoc would overtake the world.
Were this to occur and come true, it would be an example of this
category.

The third category is where the thing is such as will be understood
and cause no harm when mentioned clearly, although it is usually
expressed through metaphor or allegory so that its impression on
the heart of the listener may be deeper. Its value is that it leaves a
greater impression on the heart. Thus if a person had said that he
had seen a man place pearls around the necks of swine and his
words were taken metaphorically to express the imparting of
knowledge, and the spread of learning among those who are
unworthy, the (ordinary) listener would readily understand its literal
meaning while the thorough and careful listener, when he examines
and finds that the man had no pearls and was not surrounded by
swine, would see through and comprehend the inner and invisible
meaning. Consequently men differ in this respect. An example of
this found in the following poem:
Two men, one a weaver the other a tailor
on either side of Constellation of Virgo;
One is weaving shrouds for the deceased,
and his companion tailors for the forthcoming one.

The poet expressed the celestial phenomena of the rising of the
stars and their setting metaphorically through the parable of two
artisans. This kind of (metaphor) belongs to the principle of
expressing a certain meaning through a picture which contains the
same meaning or a similar meaning.

Belonging to the same kind are the words of the Prophet when he
said, "Verily the mosque will shrink when people spit in its
courtyard just as the piece of skin shrinks when it is placed over
the fire." You can readily understand that the courtyard of the
mosque does not actually shrink when people spit in it. What the
words of the Prophet really mean is that the atmosphere of the
mosque, being honored and exalted, has been dishonored and
belittled by spitting, which is as opposed to the idea of the mosque
as fire is to the integrity of the particles of skin.

Belonging to the same kind are the words of the Prophet when he
said, "Is he who raises his head from prostration before the prayer
leader not afraid that Allah will transform his head into that of a
donkey?" This, however, will never take place literally but only
metaphorically since the head of the donkey is proverbial, not for
its form and shape, but for its characteristic stupidity and
foolishness. Thus, whoever would raise his head from prostration
before the prayer leader, his head would become like that of a
donkey in stupidity and foolishness. It is this which is meant and
not the shape which the literal meaning (of the words) indicates. For
it is utterly foolish to place following (the prayer leader) and
preceding (him) together because they are contradictory.

The knowledge that, in such cases, there are inner meanings which
differ from the outward significations, can only be determined by
either rational or legal evidence. The rational is when any
interpretation according to the outward meaning is impossible, as
in the words of the Prophet - the praise and peace be upon him -
when he said: "The heart of the believer lies between two of the
fingers of the Merciful (Allah)." When we examine the hearts of the
believers we shall not find them surrounded with fingers, and
consequently we shall know that the words are used
metaphorically for power which is inherent in fingers and
constitutes their hidden life. Furthermore, power was
metaphorically represented by the fingers because such a
metaphor conveys the idea of power more completely.

Of the same kind is the instance where Allah expresses the idea of
His Power metaphorically by saying: "When We decree a thing, We
only say: 'Be,' and it is." (Ch.16:40 Koran) The outward meaning of
this verse is not possible because if the saying of Allah 'Be' was
addressed to the thing before that thing came into existence, then
it would simply be an impossibility since the non-existent does not
understand address and, therefore, cannot obey. And if it was
addressed to the thing after the thing has come into existence, then
it would be superfluous, since the thing is already in existence and
does not need to be brought into being. But whereas this metaphor
has been more impressive upon the minds in conveying the idea
of the greatest power, recourse has been made to it.

Those cases where the inner meaning is determined by means of
legal evidence are the cases which can be interpreted according to
their literal and outward signification, but, on the authority of
prophetic quotations, a meaning other than the outward was
intended, as is the case in the interpretation of the Words of Allah
when He said, "He sends down water from the sky which fills the
riverbeds to overflowing, so that their torrents carries a swelling
foam..." (Ch.13:17 Koran). Here the word water stands for the
Koran and the torrents represent the hearts. Some of the hearts
receive and hold a lot; others receive a lot and hold little; while
others still receive a lot and hold nothing at all. The foam represents
unbelief and hypocrisy, which, although it rises to and floats upon
the surface of the water, does not last; but guidance which benefits
mankind, endures.

In this part a group of men went deeply and interpreted the things
which were mentioned in connection with the Hereafter, such as
the balance, the Bridge, and the like. All this, however, is innovation
because it was not handed down by prophetic quotations,
especially since its literal and outward interpretation is not
impossible. Therefore it should be interpreted literally.

The fourth category is where a person comprehends the thing in
a general way and then through further investigation and
experimentation, understands its particulars so that it becomes a
part of him. Thus the two kinds of knowledge differ. The first, (i.e.
the general) resembles the husks, while the second (i.e. the
particular), resembles the pith. The first is the visible or outward, the
second is the invisible or inward. This is just like the example of the
man who sees a person in the dark or from a distance and
acquires a certain picture of that person. But when he sees him
from a close range or after the darkness has gone, he realizes
certain differences. This last picture, however, is not opposed to the
first but complementary to it.

The same is true of knowledge, faith, and belief. For a person may
believe in the existence of love, sickness, and death even before
any of them occur. But to believe in their existence after they have
taken place is more complete than believing in their existence
before they take place. In fact mankind has, with regard to passion
and love as well as the other conditions, three different stages and
three distinct degrees of comprehension.

The first is to believe in the existence of the thing before it takes
place; the second is to believe in its existence at the time of its
occurrence; and the third is to believe in its existence after it has
taken place.

To recognize the existence of hunger after it is gone is different
from recognizing its existence before it is gone. Similarly, there are
some of the sciences of Religion which mature by experience and
their mature state as compared with their premature state is like the
invisible as compared to the visible. Hence there is a difference
between the sick man's knowledge of health and the healthy man's
knowledge of it. In short, people differ in these four parts; yet in
none of them is there an invisible meaning which contradicts the
visible. Rather the invisible meaning completes and perfects the
visible just as the pith completes the husk.

The fifth category is where concrete words are used figuratively.
Those with lessor intellect will regard the literal and visible meaning
sensible and will not go beyond it; but the man who has an insight
for realities will comprehend the secret it contains. This is like the
words of him who said, "The wall said to the peg, 'why do you split
me?' The peg replied 'Ask the one who is hitting me and does not
let me go. Go and see the mallet which is behind me.'" This is,
undoubtedly, figurative.

Of the same kind are the following Words of Allah, "Then He willed
to the heaven, when it was smoke, and to it and to the earth He
said: 'Come willingly, or unwillingly.' 'We come willingly,' they
answered." (Ch.41:11 Koran). Those with lesser intellect, because
of their lack of understanding, would assume that both the Heaven
and the earth possess life intellect, and the ability to understand
speech. He would also assume that they were addressed by a
speech of actually enunciated words which both could hear and
reply to with enunciated words saying, "We come willingly." But
whosoever has insight would realize that this was a figurative (use
of language) and that Allah only expressed that the Heaven and
earth are subject to His Will.

Of the same kind, too, are the Words of Allah when He said, "There
is nothing that does not proclaim His Praise..." (Ch.17:46 Koran).
Those with lesser intellect, because of their lack of understanding,
would assume that the inanimate things possess life intellect, and
the ability to speak and enunciate words, so that they would have
to say, "Praise is to Allah" in order that His Praise might be
established. But he who has insight would know that the actual
utterance with the tongue was not meant by that but merely that
everything, through its own existence, praises Allah, and in its own
essence exalts Him and attests to His Oneness. As has been said:
"In everything He has a sign which declares that He is One."
In the same way it is said, "This masterpiece testifies that its Maker
possesses the ability and perfect knowledge." This does not mean
that the masterpiece actually utter the words, "I testify ..." etc. but
merely that, through its form and state, (it testifies to the Ability and
Knowledge of its Maker).

Similarly everything does, in itself, stand in need of the Creator to
create and sustain it, to maintain its attributes and to move it to and
fro in its different states. And through its need it testifies to its Maker
by Exalting Him. Such a witness is comprehended by those who
have insight, not those who stand still and do not venture beyond
the externals. For this reason Allah said, "But you do not understand
their extolling." (Ch.17:46 Koran). Those with lessor intellect do not
understand this at all, while the favorites of Allah and the versatile
learned men do not understand it perfectly because everything
extols Allah and praises Him in many ways and each
comprehends according to his intellect and insight.

The enumeration of these witnesses is not becoming under the
science of practical Religion. In this part too those who cling to
externals differ from those who have insight, and in it the
disagreement between the visible and the invisible becomes
evident.

4. INTERPRETATION AND ABSTENTION WITH SUBMISSION

In this connection people are either extremists or followers of the
middle-road. As extremists, some have gone so far in the
(allegorical) interpretation of words that they have explained away
all or most of their outward and literal meaning. They have taken
the Words of Allah, "Their hands will speak to and their legs will
testify to their earnings." (Ch.36:65 Koran) as well as, "'Why did you
bear witness against us,' they will say to their skins, and their skins
will reply: 'Allah gave us speech, as He gave speech to everything.'"
(Ch.41:21 Koran) and the conversation which takes place between
Munkar and Nakeer, and in the Balance, the Bridge, and the
Judgement Day together with the debate between the people of
Hell and the people of Paradise when (the former) says: "Pour upon
us some water, or of the refreshments Allah has given you," and
claimed that all this was figurative.

On the other hand some went to the opposite extreme and forbade
(any but the literal interpretation). Among those was Ahmad
ibn-Hanbal who went as far as to forbid the allegorical interpretation
of the Words of Allah "'Be', and it is." (Ch.16:42 Koran).
His followers have claimed that these Words were words of actual
speech with enunciated letters and sounds brought into existence
by Allah the very moment He created a created thing. I have even
heard one of his followers say that (Ahmad ibn-Hanbal) forbade the
allegorical interpretation of all but three prophetic quotations,
namely the words of the Prophet when he said, "The Stone is the
right Hand of Allah in the earth," (the Stone in Ka'bah) and, "The
heart of the believer lies between two of the fingers of the Merciful
(Allah);" and "Verily I shall find the soul of the Merciful (coming) from
the direction of al- Yaman." Even here the literalists have been
inclined to forbid any allegorical interpretation.

It is assumed, however, that Ahmad ibn Hanbal knew that
ascending is not fixity of location, and descending is not change of
location; nevertheless he forbade allegorical interpretation for the
good and welfare of people, since whenever it is allowed matters
become worse and get out of control, overstepping the limits of
moderation. Things which go beyond the limits of moderation are
beyond control. Therefore there is no harm done by such a
prohibition which is also attested by the lives of the good, first
generation who used to say, "Take them literally as they have been
(revealed and) handed down." Thus Malik, on being asked about
ascending, went so far as to say, "The fact of ascending is known
but its manner is not; to believe in it is an obligation, to inquire about
its manner is a heresy.' Another group advocated the middle of the
road position and permitted allegorical interpretation in everything
which relates to the attributes of Allah but have taken the things
which pertain to the Hereafter in a literal sense and forbade their
allegorical interpretation. The advocates of this position are the
Ash'arites.

The Mu'tazilites go further. They explain away the possibility of
seeing Allah and His being possessed of hearing and sight. They
also explain away the ascension (al mi'raj) of the Prophet and claim
that it had not taken place bodily, the punishment of the grave, the
balance, the Bridge, and other eschatological representations.
Nevertheless they confess the resurrection of the body, Paradise
with its food, perfume, and sex as well as other sensual pleasures,
and Hell with burning fires which scorch the skin and melt the fat.

The philosophers (who invaded all the branches of today's
Christianity) go still further. They interpret all eschatological
representations as allegories denoting mental and spiritual pain,
and mental and spiritual delight. They deny the resurrection of the
body but believe in the immortality of the soul and that it will be
punished or made happy by punishment and delight of non-sensual
nature. They are extremists.

The true middle-road (called Asharia after Imam Abul Hasan Al
Ashari) between this complete allegorism and the rigidity of the
Hanbalites is subtle and obscure. It is found only by those who
enjoy Divine Guidance and comprehend things by the aid of Divine
Light, not by hearsay. Then when the mysteries of things are
revealed to them, so that they see them as they are, they go back
to the Koran and prophetic quotations and their wording; whatever
agrees with what they see with the light of certainty they affirm, and
whatever disagrees with it they interpret allegorically.
But he who bases his knowledge of these things on mere hearsay
will thereby fail to secure a firm foothold or gain a well defined
position therein. Such a man who confines himself to mere hearsay
would do better to follow the position of Ahmad ibn Hanbal.

But a closer examination and definition of the middle-road position
in these things belongs to the vast subject of revelation which we
must leave aside.

Our aim was only to make clear that the invisible and visible may
be in harmony with one another and that no disagreement exists
between them. At any rate many things have been unfolded
through our discussion of these five parts.

It is our opinion that for the common people the explanation of the
faith which we have already given is sufficient for them and that
nothing further will be required of them in the first degree. But if any
fear of disturbances arises on account of the spread of heresies,
then, in the second degree, recourse may be had to a statement of
the belief wherein a brief and undetailed outline of the obvious
proofs is presented.

We shall, therefore, present these obvious proofs in this book and
shall confine ourselves therein to what we have issued to the
people of Jerusalem, entitled al Risalah al Qudsiyah fi Qawa'id al
'Aqa'id (The Jerusalem Epistle on the Foundations of the Articles of
Faith) and included in the following third section of this book.

3 SHINING PROOFS OF THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE ARTICLES OF
  FAITH (COMPOSED IN JERUSALEM)

We say - In the Name of the Merciful, the Compassionate Allah.
Praise be to Allah who distinguished the community of the sunnah
(prophetic way) with the light of certainty and favored the people of
truth by guiding them to the foundation of Religion; who saved
them from the errors of the unrighteous and the wickedness of the
unbelievers.

It is with His Grace that He led them to follow the example of the
Master of the Messengers; who directed their footsteps in the way
of his honored companions and enabled them to emulate the good,
early generations, so that they protected themselves with the
strong cord against the dictates of reason, and (to emulate) the lives
and beliefs of the ancients with the clear method, combining
thereby the products of reason and the ordinances of the religion.

Furthermore they found out that mere verbal repetition of the words
"There is no god except Allah; Muhammad is the Messenger of
Allah" is of no avail unless they completely understand what the
fundamentals of the witness involve of principle and pillars. They
also have known that the two witnessing phrases, despite their
brevity, contain an affirmation of the existence of Allah Himself, His
Attributes, and His Deeds, as well as an affirmation of the
truthfulness of the Messenger - the praise and peace be upon him -
And they also knew that establishing the faith upon these pillars,
which are four, each one having ten principles: The first pillar
concerning the knowledge of the Essence of Allah - the High -
consists of ten principles. They are:

1. The knowledge that Allah - the High - exists.
2. He is Ancient
3. He is Everlasting.
4. He is not a substance.
5. He is not a body.
6. He is not a quality of a body (accident).
7. He is not subject to a direction.
8. He is not resident in a place.
9. He is seen.
10. He is One.

The second pillar concerns the attributes of Allah:
It comprises of ten principles.
They are the knowledge that:

1. He is Alive.
2. He is Knowledgeable.
3. He is Powerful.
4. He is the Willer.
5. He is the Hearer.
6. He is the Seer.
7. He is the Speaker.
8. His Essence is Exalted to contain a creation (a substratum for
originated
properties or a locus of phenomena).
9. His Words are ancient and eternal.
10. His Knowledge is ancient and eternal as His Will.

The third pillar concerns the Deeds of Allah:
it consists of ten principles:

1. The actions of mankind are created by Allah - the High -.
2. They are gained by the creation.
3. They are willed by Allah - the High -.
4. Allah has been Gracious by creation and invention.
5. Allah is free to impose unbearable obligations.
6. Allah is free to punish the innocent.
7. While taking into consideration that which is best is not
obligatory upon Him.
8. That there is nothing obligatory except by the Religion.
9. His sending of prophets is possible (not an obligation upon Him).
10. The prophecy of our Prophet Muhammad - the praise and
peace be upon him - is true being confirmed by miracles.

The fourth pillar is concerning heard verses and the prophetic
quotations mentioning the unseen. And consist of ten principles:

1. The affirmation of the assembly on the Day of Recompense.
2. The accounting.
3. The questioning (of the dead by the angels) Munkar and Nakeer.
4. The punishment of the grave.
5. The balance.
6. The Bridge over Hell.
7. The creation of Paradise and Hell.
8. The ruling of the imamate (Caliphate).
9. The excellence of the Companions is in accordance with the
chronological order.
10. The conditions of the imamate (caliphate).

THE FIRST PILLAR

The first among the pillars of belief is the knowledge of the
Essence of Allah - the Exalted, the High - and that Allah - the High -
is One.

It consists of ten principles:

(1a) THE KNOWLEDGE OF HIS EXISTENCE

The first principle is the knowledge of the existence of Allah - the
High -:

The first light which should be used for illumination and the first
thing to be followed on the road of admonition are the instructions
of the Koran, because there is no explanation beyond that of Allah
- the Exalted -. Allah says in the Koran: "Have We not made the
earth a cradle and the mountains as pegs? And We created you in
pairs, and We made your sleep a rest, and We made the night a
mantle, and We made the day for a livelihood. And We built above
you seven strong ones, and placed in them a blazing lamp and
have sent down from the clouds pouring rain that We may bring
forth with it grain and plants and luxuriant gardens." (Ch.78:6-16).
And again, "Assuredly in the creation of the Heaven and of the
Earth; and in the alternation of night and day; and in the ships which
pass through the sea with what is useful to man; and in the rain
which Allah sends down from Heaven, giving life by it to the earth
after its death, and by scattering over it all kinds of cattle; and in the
change of the winds, and in the clouds that are compelled between
the Heaven and the Earth; are signs for those who understand." He
- the High - also said: "Have you not seen how Allah created the
seven heavens one above the other, setting in them the moon as
a light and the sun as a lantern? Allah has caused you to grow
from the earth, and to it He will return you. Then He will bring you
forth." (Ch.71:15-18). And He - the High - said: "Have you seen what
you ejaculate? Did you create it, or are We the Creator? It was We
that decreed death among you. We will not be outstripped that We
will charge you and cause you to grow again in a fashion you do
not know. You have surely known the first creation. Why then, will
you not remember! Consider the soil you till. Is it you that sow it, or
are We the Sower? If We will, We would make it broken orts and
you would remain wondering. (Saying:) 'We are laden with debts!
Rather, we have been prevented!' Consider the water which you
drink. Is it you that send it down from the clouds or We? If We will,
We would make it bitter, why then do you not give thanks?
Consider the fire which you kindle. Is it you that originated its tree,
or are We the Originator?" (Ch.56:58-72 Koran).

Anyone with the least bit of intellect is able to reflect upon the
import of these verses and reviewing the wonders of the creation
of Allah, in Heaven and on earth as well as the beauties of nature
in animal and plant, realizes that this wonderful matter with its
consummate order cannot be independent from the Creator to
direct it and the Maker to govern it and quantify it.

Therefore Allah - the High - said: "Is there any doubt about Allah, the
Creator of the heavens and the earth?" (Ch.14:10). The prophets -
the praise of Allah be upon them - were, therefore, sent in order to
call the creation to the Oneness, that they may say, "There is no
god except Allah." They were not, however, commanded to say,
"We have a god and the world has a god," because such a thing is
inborn in their minds from the time of their birth and in the midst of
their youth.

For this reason Allah - the High, the Glorified - said: "If you ask them:
'Who has created the heavens and the earth?' They will reply:
'Allah.'... (Ch.31:25 Koran). And He - the High - said: "Therefore set
your face to the Religion, purely, the upright creation upon which He
originated people there is no changing of the creation of Allah, this
is the valuable religion." (Ch.31:30 Koran). Therefore there is in
human nature and the testimonies of the Koran what will render the
task of citing proof unnecessary.

(1b) THE PROOF OF REASON FOR HIS EXISTENCE

Nevertheless, by way of preparation and following the example of
the learned theologians, we say: One of the obvious logic of the
mind is that an originated phenomenon cannot come into existence
without a cause. Since the world is an originated phenomenon, it
cannot come into existence without a cause.

As for our saying that originated phenomena cannot come into
existence without a cause, is obvious. For every originated
phenomenon belongs to a certain definite time the precedence or
the subsequence of which may be assumed. Its being definite in
time and distinct from what preceded it and what succeeded it, will
naturally require one who renders things definite.

As to one saying that the world is an originated phenomenon, its
proof is found in the fact that bodies are not independent of motion
and rest. Both states are originated phenomena; and whatever is
not independent of originated things is itself originated.

The proof consists of three claims: The first is that bodies are not
independent of motion and rest. This is readily understood and
requires neither meditation nor thinking, for he who conceives of a
body being in neither the kinetic state nor in the static state is both
ignorant and foolish.

The second assertion is our saying that both motion and rest are
originated phenomena, the proof of which is found in their
alternation and in the ap- pearance of the one after the other is
gone. This is true of all bodies, those that have been seen as well
as those that have not been seen. For there is not a static object the
potential motion of which is not required by the mind, and there is
no moving object the potential rest of which is not required by the
mind. The sudden is originated because of its immediate
occurrence and that which has gone is also an originated matter
since it is no longer due to the fact if it is proven it is ancient it will
obligate that it does not turn to nothing - details of which will be
explained in proving eternity of the Maker - the High, the Purified -.

The third assertion is our statement that whatever is not
independent of originated things is itself originated. Its proof lies in
the fact that if it were not so, then there would be, before every
originated phenomenon, other originated phenomena which have
no beginning; and unless these originated phenomena come to
nothing in their entirety, the turn for the present originated
phenomena to come into being immediately would never arrive.
But it is impossible for that which has no end to come to nothing.

Furthermore if the celestial spheres have revolutions, the numbers
of which have no end, it is inevitable that their numbers be either
odd or even, or both odd and even, or neither odd nor even. But it
is impossible that their numbers be both odd and even at the same
time, or neither odd nor even for this would be a combination of
both the negative and the affirmative, since in the affirmation of the
one is the negation of the other, and in the negation of the one is
the affirmation of the other.

Furthermore they cannot possibly be even because the even
number becomes odd with the addition of one; and how could that
which has no end be wanting one? Nor can they possibly be odd
because the odd number becomes even with the addition of one;
and how could it be wanting one when its number has no end?
Therefore the conclusion is that the world is not independent of
originated phenomena, and that which is not independent of
originated phenomena is itself originated. And when its being an
originated phenomena has been established, its need for an
Originator becomes a necessity through obvious comprehension.

(2) ANCIENT ETERNITY

The second principle is the knowledge that Allah is Ancient from
eternity. He has no beginning, but He is the beginning of everything
and before anything living or dead. The proof of this is found in the
supposition that if Allah had been originated and not ancient, He
would have been in need of an originator. In turn His originator
would also need an originator and so on in a chain of infinity. And
whatever enrolls in such chain will never be found. Or it reaches to
an Ancient Originator and He is the First. This is the wanted whom
we named the Maker, the Originator, the Fashioner, and the Creator
of the Worlds.

(3) ETERNITY

The third principle is the knowledge that Allah, besides being
without beginning, His Existence has no end.

He is the First and the Last, the Visible and the Invisible, since that
whose eternity is established His end is impossible. Its proof lies in
the realization that if it came to nothing it is inevitable that it should
come to nothing either by Himself or by an opponent.

And if it were possible for a thing, which is conceived of as
self-subsisting, to come to nothing, it will be possible for a thing,
which is conceived of as self- annihilating, to come into being. And
just as the sudden emergence of existence requires a cause, so
does the emergence of extinction require a cause. That it will come
to nothing through an opposing annihilating agency is false,
because if that annihilating agency were ancient, existence side by
side with it would be inconceivable. But we have learnt in the two
previous principles of His Existence and His Eternity. How did He
exist together with the claimed opponent in eternity? If, however,
the annihilating opponent were an originated phenomenon, its
existence from eternity would be impossible because for the
originated phenomenon to oppose the ancient and destroy its
existence is less likely than the ancient to oppose the originated
and prevent its existence. In fact prevention is easier than
destruction while the ancient is stronger and more pre-eminent than
the originated.

(4) FREE FROM SUBSTANCE

The fourth principle: The knowledge that He - the High - is not a
substance which can be in a dimension. Rather, He is Exalted
above to be suitable for a dimension. The proof of this lies in the
fact that every substance which is definite, is limited by its own
place and is inevitably either constant in it or moving away from it.
Therefore it is not independent of motion or rest for both these are
originated, and that which is not independent of originated
phenomena is itself originated.

If an ancient definite substance were conceivable, the eternity of the
substances of the world would have been reasonable. And if a
person should use the term substance and not mean thereby a
resident substance, he would be mistaken as far as the use of the
term is concerned, not as far as the meaning for which he had used
it.

(5) FREE FROM BODILY FORM

The fifth principle: The knowledge that He - the High - is not a body
composed of different substances, since the body is that which is
composed of substances. When His being a substance limited by
place is refuted, His being a body is also refuted, because every
body is limited by place and is composed of substances. But it is
impossible for the substance to be free from division, composition,
motion, rest, form, and quantity, all of which are characteristics of
originated phenomena. And if it were possible to believe that the
Maker of the world is a body, it would also be possible to believe
in the divinity of the sun and the moon as well as other heavenly
bodies. If, therefore, one should dare and call Allah a body but not
mean thereby a composition of substances, he would be wrong as
far as the name is concerned, but not in negating the idea of body.

(6) FREE FROM THE QUALITY OF SUBSTANCE

The sixth principle: The knowledge that He - the High - is not a
quality of substance of a substance existing in a body or a
condition in a place; because an accident is that which exists in a
body. But every body is inevitably originated and as such its
originator exists before it. How then could (Allah) exist in a body
when He has existed in eternity alone, with no other beside Him,
and then originated the bodies and their qualities afterwards.
Besides He is a Knowing, and Able, and the Willing Creator as shall
be discussed later. It is impossible for these attributes to exist in
substance or its quality. On the contrary they are impossible except
in a Self-existent and Self-sufficient Creator.

The conclusion derived from these principles is that He (Allah) is
Self-existing, being neither substance, nor body, nor a quality of
substance; that the whole world is made of substances, their
quality, and bodies, and consequently He resembles nothing and
nothing resembles Him. He is the Living, the Subsisting, there is
none like unto Him. For how could the created resemble its Creator,
the ordained resemble He who ordained it, and the fashioned
resemble He who fashioned it? All bodies and their qualities were
created and made by Him; hence it is impossible that they are like
Him or resemble Him.

(7) FREE FROM DIRECTION AND PLACE

The seventh principle: The knowledge that Allah - the High - is
removed from being limited by any direction because a direction
is either above or below, right or left, before or behind. All these He
created and originated through the creation of man whom he made
with two extremities, the one rests on the earth and comprises his
feet, while the opposite extremity is his head. Consequently the
term above was originated to indicate the direction of the head and
the term below, the direction of the feet. This is true even of the ant
which creeps on the ceiling with the result that the directions, in
relation to it, are reversed - what we consider above is to it below,
and what we consider below is to it above. Similarly people were
created with two hands, one hand usually being stronger than the
other. The term right was therefore originated to indicate the
direction of the stronger hand and the term left to indicate the
opposite direction. Consequently the right hand side is called the
right and the opposite direction is called the left.

Mankind was also created with two (other) directions from one of
which he sees and toward which he moves. Consequently the term
before was originated to designate the direction toward which he
moves, while the term behind was originated to designate the
opposite.

Therefore the directions are originated through the creation of man;
and had he not been created along these lines, but rather created
round like a sphere, these directions would never have existed.

How then could Allah have been subject to a direction in eternity
when every direction is originated. Or how could He have become
subject to a direction when He never had any direction above Him
when He created man; for that will mean that He has a head, since
above designates the direction above the head. But Allah is far
Exalted (above His creatures) to have a head. Again how could He
have become subject to a direction when He never had any
direction below Him when He created mankind; for that will mean
that He has feet, since below designates the direction below the
feet. Allah is far Exalted (above His creatures) to have feet. All this
is too impossible (to imagine) in the mind. For whatever the mind
conceives is definite in so far as it is limited by place, in the same
way as substances are limited, or by substances, in the same way
as their qualities are. But the impossibility of His being a substance
or its quality has been established - consequently His being subject
to a direction becomes impossible.

If therefore anything else is meant by the term direction other than
these two meanings then the usage will be wrong in terminology
and signification; because if Allah were above the world He would
be opposite to it, and everything which is opposite to a body is
either equal to it in size, or smaller or larger. All this implies
measurement which necessarily requires an object or
measurement. But Allah the One Creator and Ruler of the world and
universe is far Exalted above such things.

As to the raising of hands heaven-wards at the time of supplication
it is because Heaven is the direction of supplication and implies a
description of the One to whom the supplications are offered, such
as Majesty and Grandeur, employing thereby the direction of height
to represent the quality of Glory and Exaltation. For Allah is above
all in dominion and power.

(8) ISTAWA

The eighth principle: That He - the High - "istawa" upon the Throne
in the sense which He willed by that state of equilibrium - a state
which is not inconsistent with the quality of grandeur and to which
the symptoms of origination and annihilation do not permeate. It is
exactly what has been meant by the ascension to Heaven in the
Koran when Allah said, "Then He willed to the Heaven, when it was
smoke." (Ch.41:11 Koran). This is only through dominion and
power, as the poet said:
"Bishr has gained dominion over Iraq,
With neither sword nor shedding of blood."

Thus were the people of truth compelled to pursue such a figurative
and allegorical interpretation just as the people of the invisible
knowledge were compelled to interpret His saying - the High -: "He
is with you wherever you are" (Ch. 57:4 Koran). This has been
taken, by agreement, to mean thorough comprehension and
knowledge just as the words of the Prophet - the praise and peace
be upon him - "The heart of the believer lies between two of the
fingers of the Merciful (Allah)", have been taken to mean might and
power while his words, "The Black Stone is the Right Hand of Allah
in the earth," have been taken to mean veneration and honor,
because if they were taken literally, the result would have been
impossible.

Similarly the "istawa" of Allah upon the Throne, if it were left to
mean fixity of location and stability, would necessitate that He who
is seated upon the Throne is a body touching the Throne, and is
either equal to it in size, or larger or smaller. But all this is
impossible, and what leads to the impossible is itself impossible.

(9) SEEING

The ninth principle: Is the knowledge that He - the High - although
exalted from form and quantity and exalted above directions and
dimensions, is nevertheless seen with the eyes in the Hereafter, the
Everlasting abode. For He said, "On that Day there shall be radiant
faces, gazing towards their Lord." (Ch.74:22-23 Koran). But He
cannot be seen in this world according to His saying - the Mighty,
the Glorified -: "No eye can see Him, He sees all eyes" (Ch.6:103
Koran). And according to His Words in addressing Moses - peace
be upon him -: "You shall not see Me." Would that I knew how the
Mu'tazilites knew the attributes of Allah that Moses himself did not
know; or how Moses asked to see Allah when seeing Him was
impossible! Ignorance is more likely to be rampant among heretics
and sectarians than among the prophets - the praise of Allah be
upon them -.
As for the reason of taking the verse describing seeing literally it is
because it does not lead to the impossible.

For sight is a kind of revelation and knowledge, although it is more
complete and clearer than knowledge. And if it is possible to know
Allah without reference to direction, it is also possible to see Him
without reference to direction. And just as it is possible for Allah to
see men without confrontation, it is possible for men to see Him
without confrontation; and just as it is possible to know Him without
modality or form, it is possible to see Him likewise.

(10) THE ONENESS

The tenth principle: The knowledge that Allah - the Mighty, the
Glorified - is One without any associate, Single without an equal. He
is separate in creating and innovating; He is alone in bringing into
existence and inventing. There are none like Him to rival or equal
Him, and none opposite Him to contest or contend with Him. The
proof is in His saying - the High - "Had there been other gods in both
of them (in Heaven or earth) besides Allah, there would have been
ruin." (Ch.21:22 Koran). And to explain, if there had been two gods
and the first of them willed a certain thing, the second, if he were
under compulsion to aid the first, would be a subordinate and
impotent being rather than an almighty god; and if the second were
able to contradict and oppose the first, he would be a powerful and
dominating being while the first would be weak and impotent rather
than an almighty god.

THE SECOND PILLAR CONCERNING THE ATTRIBUTES OF ALLAH
Based upon ten principles.
(1) ABILITY

The first principle is the knowledge that the Maker of the world is
Almighty and that He - the High - is Truthful in His saying: "He has
power over all things," (Ch.5:120 Koran). Because the world is
perfect in its making and orderly in its composition. For he who
would see a silk garment, fine in its weave and texture, symmetrical
in its embroidery and ornamentation, and would imagine that it was
woven by a dead person that has no life, or by a helpless person
with has no power, would be completely lacking in intellect and
utterly foolish and ignorant.

(2) KNOWLEDGE

The second principle is the knowledge that He - the High - is
Knowledgeable, knowing all things and comprehending all
creation; not even the weight of an atom in Heaven or on earth is
ever hidden from His Knowledge. He is truthful in His saying: "He
has knowledge of all things." (Ch.2:29 Koran).

Furthermore evidence of His Truthfulness is found in His Saying -
the High -: "Shall He who has created all things not know? He is the
Subtle, the Aware." (Ch.67:14 Koran). He has led you, through His
creation, to comprehend the knowledge that you cannot doubt in
proving the subtleness of creation and orderly creation, even in
insignificant and meager things, offers to the knowledge of the
Maker of how to bring order and how to arrange. And what Allah -
the Exalted - Himself said is the Last Word in guidance and in
revealing knowledge.

(3) LIFE

The third principle is the knowledge that Allah - the High, the
Glorified - is Alive, because he whose knowledge and power are
established, his being possessed of life will, of necessity, become
established. If it is possible to conceive of the existence of an able,
knower, doer and planner yet without life, it will be possible to
doubt the life of animals, despite their movements, as well as the
life of all craftsmen and artisans, all of which is utter ignorance and
error.

(4) WILL

The fourth principle is the knowledge that He - the High - is Willing
for His Deeds. And nothing exists which does not depend upon,
and proceed from His Will. He is the Creator, the Restorer, the Doer
of whatsoever He wills. And how could He not be a Willer when, in
every deed which has proceeded from Him, its opposite could
have proceeded from Him; for whosoever has no opposite it is
possible that action could proceed from Him by Himself before or
after the time in which it has proceeded.

And it suits His Power both the two opposites and the two times
in the same way. Therefore, it is necessary that there should be a
Will which directs His Power to one of the two possibilities.

And if Knowledge would, in specifying the known thing, render the
Will needless, so that it could be said that a thing has come into
being at a time when its existence had already been known (this is
not the case otherwise), it would be possible for knowledge to
render power needless, so that it could be said that a thing has
come into being without Power (which is not the case), but simply
because its existence has already been known.

(5) HEARING AND SEEING

The fifth principle is the knowledge that He - the High - is the Hearer
and the Seer. Neither the whispers of the innermost heart nor the
secret thoughts and reflections are hidden from His Sight. The
sound of the creeping of the black ant upon the solid rock in the
darkest night is not beyond His Hearing. And how could He not see
and hear when seeing and hearing are (attributes of) perfection not
of defect? Could the created be more perfect than its Creator, the
thing made more magnificent and more complete than the Maker?
Or how could they ever be equal, no matter how much He might
diminish in perfection while His creation and work increase therein?
And again how could the argument of Abraham - the praise and
peace of Allah be upon him - against his father, who ignorantly and
erroneously worshipped idols, be sound? Abraham addressed his
father saying: "O father, why worship that which can neither see nor
hear, nor can do anything for you?" (Ch.19:42 Koran). But if these
defects which characterized the idols of his father characterized his
Creator as well, his argument would have been invalid and his
evidence worthless, and the words of Allah: "Thi