From wnb@mail.ast.cam.ac.uk Sun Mar 20 12:06:10 1994
Received: from cast0.ast.cam.ac.uk by mace.cc.purdue.edu (5.61/Purdue_CC)
id AA11369; Sun, 20 Mar 94 12:05:28 -0500
Received: by cast0.ast.cam.ac.uk (UK-Smail 3.1.25.1/2)
id ; Sun, 20 Mar 94 17:05 GMT
Received: by mail.ast.cam.ac.uk (MX V3.3 VAX) id 14465; Sun, 20 Mar 1994
17:04:40 +0000
Date: Sun, 20 Mar 1994 17:04:54 +0000
From: wnb@mail.ast.cam.ac.uk
To: jewell@mace.cc.purdue.edu
Message-Id: <0097BB9B.B6BA59A0.14465@mail.ast.cam.ac.uk>
Subject: The science history timeline
Status: OR
% ------------------------------------
% Science History Timeline Version 3.0
% ------------------------------------
%
% This is a copy of version 3.0 of the science history timeline I
% have been working on. Thanks to the many people who gave me
% suggestions about earlier versions and apologies to those people
% whose suggested additions I have not yet fully incorporated. I'm
% working on them!
%
% The timeline is a plain TEX file and does not require any TEX
% macro files. One should only need to edit out the usenet/mail header
% information and then the file should be able to be passed through
% TEX (you will get some underfull \vbox complaints but these do not
% matter). You do not need to edit out this information and I would
% appreciate it if you would not so that if later you give this file to
% someone else they will be able to send me their ideas. The TEX \vsize
% variable is currently set for British size paper and will have to be
% changed for other sizes of paper.
%
% I would like to make some comments about the timeline:
%
% 1. I realize that scientific discoveries are not clear cut events
% and that many people often contribute to a scientific discovery
% while only a few get recognition. I have worked to recognize
% as many people as possible, but I am sure there are events where I
% have left out people who deserve credit. I would be grateful if
% people could point out such instances and suggest corrections so I
% can implement them in version 3.1.
%
% I also realize that timelines such as this one are arbitary and will
% always be infinitely incomplete. Nevertheless, I find this timeline
% useful and interesting.
%
% 2. I have separated the events into categories since a single list was
% unwieldly. Such categorization makes my gaps of knowledge in certain
% fields quite apparent. My poor coverage of some branches of science
% does not mean that I do not think they are important. I hope to read
% about and improve my coverage of fields which are poorly covered in
% this version. To this end, interesting nonspecialist books (preferably
% written from a historical perspective) would be most helpful and I would
% appreciate suggestions.
%
% I would be grateful if people could point out instances where I
% have put events in the wrong category. I have decided not to cross
% list events to minimize the length of the timeline.
%
% 3. I would be grateful for factual, name, spelling, and grammar
% corrections.
%
% If people have specific events they think should be added to my
% timeline I would like to know about them. Dates, names, and
% references (I never add an event until I have read about
% it and understand it at least qualitatively) would be very useful.
%
% 4. I try to make my explanations of each event as illustrative as
% possible but restrict each event to three lines maximum since I
% would like to make it possible for the timeline to be easily
% browsed. I would be grateful for suggestions as to how to better
% word specific events so as to make their descriptions maximally
% illuminating in the available space.
%
% 5. If people know the full names of any of the scientists for which
% I currently only give initials I would like to know the full names.
%
% Please send any suggestions to me via email.
%
% Thank you,
%
% Niel Brandt
% brandt@sandman.caltech.edu
%
% This document is copyright Niel Brandt 1994. You are allowed to copy,
% distribute, and edit this document at will without any obligation as long
% as you do not remove the above header. Reproduction and distribution for
% personal profit is not permitted.
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\font\sevenrm=cmr7
\font\sevenbf=cmbx7
\font\sevenit=cmti7
\font\tenrm=cmr10
\font\tenbf=cmbx10
\font\tentt=cmtt10
\voffset=-0.8 in
\hoffset=-0.5 in
\vsize=11.0 in
\hsize=7.0 in
\sevenrm
\baselineskip=8 pt
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\noindent {\tenbf EVENTS IN SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS, AND TECHNOLOGY --- VERSION 3.0}
\vskip 0.05 in
\noindent {\tenrm William Nielsen Brandt --- \tentt brandt@sandman.caltech.edu}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Classical Mechanics}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-260 & Archimedes mathematically works out the principle of the lever and discovers the principle of buoyancy\cr
60 & Hero of Alexandria writes {\sevenit Metrica}, {\sevenit Mechanics}, and {\sevenit Pneumatics}\cr
1490 & Leonardo da Vinci describes capillary action\cr
1581 & Galileo Galilei notices the timekeeping property of the pendulum\cr
1589 & Galileo Galilei uses balls rolling on inclined planes to show that different weights fall with the same acceleration\cr
1638 & Galileo Galilei publishes {\sevenit Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences}\cr
1658 & Christian Huygens experimentally discovers that balls placed anywhere inside an inverted cycloid reach the lowest point of the\cr
& cycloid in the same time and thereby experimentally shows that the cycloid is the isochrone\cr
1668 & John Wallis suggests the law of conservation of momentum\cr
1687 & Isaac Newton publishes his {\sevenit Principia Mathematica}\cr
1690 & James Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the isochrone problem\cr
1691 & Johann Bernoulli shows that a chain freely suspended from two points will form a catenary\cr
1691 & James Bernoulli shows that the catenary curve has the lowest center of gravity that any chain hung from two fixed points can have\cr
1696 & Johann Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the brachistochrone problem\cr
1714 & Brook Taylor derives the fundamental frequency of a stretched vibrating string in terms of its tension and mass per unit length\cr
& by solving an ordinary differential equation\cr
1733 & Daniel Bernoulli derives the fundamental frequency and harmonics of a hanging chain by solving an ordinary differential equation\cr
1734 & Daniel Bernoulli solves the ordinary differental equation for the vibrations of an elastic bar clamped at one end\cr
1738 & Daniel Bernoulli examines fluid flow in {\sevenit Hydrodynamica}\cr
1739 & Leonhard Euler solves the ordinary differential equation for a forced harmonic oscillator and notices the resonance phenomenon\cr
1742 & Colin Maclaurin discovers his uniformly rotating self-gravitating spheroids\cr
1747 & Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis applies minimum principles to mechanics\cr
1759 & Leonhard Euler solves the partial differential equation for the vibration of a rectangular drum\cr
1764 & Leonhard Euler examines the partial differential equation for the vibration of a circular drum and finds one of the Bessel\cr
& function solutions\cr
1788 & Joseph Lagrange presents Lagrange's equations of motion in {\sevenit M\'ecanique Analytique}\cr
1789 & Antoine Lavoisier states the law of conservation of mass\cr
1821 & William Hamilton begins his analysis of Hamilton's characteristic function\cr
1834 & Carl Jacobi discovers his uniformly rotating self-gravitating ellipsoids\cr
1834 & John Russell observes a nondecaying solitary water wave in the Union Canal near Edinburgh and uses a water tank to study the dependence\cr
& of solitary water wave velocities on wave amplitude and water depth\cr
1835 & William Hamilton states Hamilton's canonical equations of motion\cr
1835 & Gaspard de Coriolis examines motion on a spinning surface deduces the Coriolis effect\cr
1842 & Christian Doppler examines the Doppler shift of sound\cr
1847 & Hermann Helmholtz formally states the law of conservation of energy\cr
1851 & Jean-Bernard Foucault shows the Earth's rotation with a huge pendulum\cr
1902 & James Jeans finds the length scale required for gravitational pertrubatations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium\cr
}
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Electromagnetism and Classical Optics}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
130 & Claudius Ptolemaeus tabulates angles of refraction for several media\cr
1269 & P\`elerin de Maricourt describes magnetic poles and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles\cr
1305 & Dietrich von Freiberg uses crystalline spheres and flasks filled with water to study the reflection and refraction in raindrops that\cr
& leads to primary and secondary rainbows\cr
1604 & Johannes Kepler describes how the eye focuses light\cr
1611 & Marko Dominis discusses the rainbow in {\sevenit De Radiis Visus et Lucis}\cr
1611 & Johannes Kepler discovers total internal reflection, a small angle refraction law, and thin lens optics\cr
1621 & Willebrord Snell states his law of refraction\cr
1637 & Ren\'e Descartes quantitatively derives the angles at which primary and secondary rainbows are seen with respect to the angle of the\cr
& Sun's elevation\cr
1657 & Pierre de Fermat introduces the principle of least time into optics\cr
1678 & Christian Huygens states his principle of wavefront sources\cr
1704 & Isaac Newton publishes {\sevenit Opticks}\cr
1728 & James Bradley discovers the aberration of starlight and uses it to determine that the speed of light is about 283,000 km/s\cr
1752 & Benjamin Franklin shows that lightning is electricity\cr
1767 & Joseph Priestly proposes an electrical inverse-square law\cr
1785 & Charles Coulomb introduces the inverse-square law of electrostatics\cr
1786 & Luigi Galvani discovers ``animal electricity'' and postulates that animal bodies are storehouses of electricity\cr
1800 & William Herschel discovers infrared radiation from the Sun\cr
1801 & Johann Ritter discovers ultraviolet radiation from the Sun\cr
1801 & Thomas Young demonstrates the wave nature of light and the principle of interference\cr
1808 & \'Etienne Malus discovers polarization by reflection\cr
1809 & \'Etienne Malus publishes the law of Malus which predicts the light intensity transmitted by two polarizing sheets\cr
1811 & Fran\c cois Arago discovers that some quartz crystals will continuously rotate the electric vector of light\cr
1816 & David Brewster discovers stress birefringence\cr
1818 & Sim\'eon Poisson predicts the Poisson bright spot at the center of the shadow of a circular opaque obstacle\cr
1818 & Fran\c cois Arago verifies the existence of the Poisson bright spot\cr
1820 & Hans Oersted notices that a current in a wire can deflect a compass needle\cr
1825 & Augustin Fresnel phenomenologically explains optical activity by introducing circular birefringence\cr
1826 & Simon Ohm states his law of electrical resistance\cr
1831 & Michael Faraday states his law of induction\cr
1833 & Heinrich Lenz states that an induced current in a closed conducting loop will appear in such a direction that it opposes the change that\cr
& produced it\cr
1845 & Michael Faraday discovers that light propagation in a material can be influenced by external magnetic fields\cr
1849 & Armand Fizeau and Jean-Bernard Foucault measure the speed of light to be about 298,000 km/s\cr
1852 & George Stokes defines the Stokes parameters of polarization\cr
1864 & James Clerk Maxwell publishes his papers on a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field\cr
1871 & Lord Rayleigh discusses the blue sky law and sunsets\cr
1873 & James Clerk Maxwell states that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon\cr
1875 & John Kerr discovers the electrically induced birefringence of some liquids\cr
1888 & Heinrich Hertz discovers radio waves\cr
1895 & Wilhelm R\"ontgen discovers X-rays\cr
1896 & Arnold Sommerfeld solves the half-plane diffraction problem\cr
1956 & R. Hanbury-Brown and R.Q. Twiss complete the correlation interferometer\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Thermodynamics, Statistical Mechanics, and Random Processes}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1761 & Joseph Black discovers that ice absorbs heat without changing temperature when melting\cr
1798 & Count Rumford has the idea that heat is a form of energy\cr
1822 & Joseph Fourier formally introduces the use of dimensions for physical quantities in his {\sevenit Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur}\cr
1824 & Sadi Carnot scientifically analyzes the efficiency of steam engines\cr
1827 & Robert Brown discovers the Brownian motion of pollen and dye particles in water\cr
1834 & Benoit-Pierre Clapeyron presents a formulation of the second law of thermodynamics\cr
1843 & James Joule experimentally finds the mechanical equivalent of heat\cr
1848 & Lord Kelvin discovers the absolute zero point of temperature\cr
1852 & James Joule and Lord Kelvin demonstrate that a rapidly expanding gas cools\cr
1859 & James Clerk Maxwell discovers the distribution law of molecular velocities\cr
1870 & Rudolph Clausius proves the scalar virial theorem\cr
1872 & Ludwig Boltzmann states the Boltzmann equation for the temporal development of distribution functions in phase space\cr
1874 & Lord Kelvin formally states the second law of thermodynamics\cr
1876 & Josiah Gibbs begins a two-year long series of papers which discusses phase equilibria, the free energy as the driving force behind chemical\cr
& reactions, and chemical thermodynamics in general\cr
1879 & Josef Stefan observes that the total radiant flux from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature\cr
1884 & Ludwig Boltzmann derives the Stefan-Boltzmann blackbody radiant flux law from thermodynamic considerations\cr
1888 & Henri-Louis Le Ch\^atelier states that the response of a chemical system perturbed from equilbrium will be to counteract the perturbation\cr
1893 & Wilhelm Wien discovers the displacement law for a blackbody's maximum specific intensity\cr
1905 & Albert Einstein mathematically analyzes the Brownian motion\cr
1906 & Walther Nernst presents a formulation of the third law of thermodynamics\cr
1910 & Albert Einstein and Marian Smoluchowski find the Einstein-Smoluchowski formula for the attenuation coefficient due to density\cr
& fluctuations in a gas\cr
1916 & Sydney Chapman and David Enskog systematically develop a kinetic theory of gases\cr
1919 & James Jeans discovers that the dynamical constants of motion determine the distribution function for a system of particles\cr
1920 & Meghnad Saha states his ionization equation\cr
1923 & Pieter Debye and Erich H\"uckel publish a statistical treatment of the dissociation of electrolytes\cr
1928 & J.B. Johnson discovers Johnson noise in a resistor\cr
1928 & Harry Nyquist derives the fluctuation-dissipation relationship for a resistor to explain Johnson noise\cr
1942 & J.L. Doob states his theorem on Gaussian-Markoff processes\cr
1957 & A.S. Kompaneets derives his Compton scattering Fokker-Planck equation\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf States of Matter and Phase Transitions}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1895 & Pierre Curie discovers that induced magnetization is proportional to magnetic field strength\cr
1911 & Heike Kammerlingh Onnes discovers superconductivity\cr
1912 & Pieter Debye derives the T-cubed law for the low temperature heat capacity of a nonmetallic solid\cr
1925 & Ernst Ising presents the solution to the one-dimensional Ising model and models ferromagnetism as a cooperative spin phenomenon\cr
1933 & Walter Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld discover perfect superconducting diamagnetism\cr
1942 & Hannes Alfv\'en predicts magnetohydrodynamic waves in plasmas\cr
1944 & Lars Onsager publishes the exact solution to the two-dimensional Ising model\cr
1957 & John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer develop the BCS theory of superconductivity\cr
1958 & Rudolf M\"ossbauer finds the M\"ossbauer crystal recoil effect\cr
1972 & Douglas Osheroff, Robert Richardson, and David Lee discover that helium-3 can become a superfluid\cr
1974 & Kenneth Wilson develops the renormalization group technique for treating phase transitions\cr
1987 & Alex M\"uller and Georg Bednorz discover high critical temperature ceramic superconductors\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Quantum Mechanics, Molecular Physics, Atomic Physics, Nuclear Physics, and Particle Physics}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-440 & Democritus speculates about fundamental indivisible particles---calls them ``atoms''\cr
1766 & Henry Cavendish discovers and studies hydrogen\cr
1778 & Carl Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier discover that air is composed mostly of nitrogen and oxygen\cr
1781 & Joseph Priestly creates water by igniting hydrogen and oxygen\cr
1800 & William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle use electrolysis to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen\cr
1803 & John Dalton introduces atomic ideas into chemistry and states that matter is composed of atoms of different weights\cr
1811 & Amedeo Avogadro claims that equal volumes of gases should contain equal numbers of molecules\cr
1832 & Michael Faraday states his laws of electrolysis\cr
1871 & Dmitri Mendeleyev systematically examines the periodic table and predicts the existence of gallium, scandium, and germanium\cr
1873 & Johannes van der Waals introduces the idea of weak attractive forces between molecules\cr
1885 & Johann Balmer finds a mathematical expression for observed hydrogen line wavelengths\cr
1887 & Heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect\cr
1894 & Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay discover argon by spectroscopically analyzing the gas left over after nitrogen and oxygen are\cr
& removed from air\cr
1895 & William Ramsay discovers terrestrial helium by spectroscopically analyzing gas produced by decaying uranium\cr
1896 & Antoine Becquerel discovers the radioactivity of uranium\cr
1896 & Pieter Zeeman studies the splitting of sodium {\sevenit D} lines when sodium is held in a flame between strong magnetic poles\cr
1897 & Joseph Thomson discovers the electron\cr
1898 & William Ramsay and Morris Travers discover neon, krypton, and xenon\cr
1898 & Marie Curie and Pierre Curie isolate and study radium and polonium\cr
1899 & Ernest Rutherford discovers that uranium radiation is composed of positively charged alpha particles and negatively charged beta particles\cr
1900 & Paul Villard discovers gamma-rays while studying uranium decay\cr
1900 & Johannes Rydberg refines the expression for observed hydrogen line wavelengths\cr
1900 & Max Planck states his quantum hypothesis and blackbody radiation law\cr
1902 & Philipp Lenard observes that maximum photoelectron energies are independent of illuminating intensity but depend on frequency\cr
1902 & Theodor Svedberg suggests that fluctuations in molecular bombardment cause the Brownian motion\cr
1905 & Albert Einstein explains the photoelectric effect\cr
1906 & Charles Barkla discovers that each element has a characteristic X-ray and that the degree of penetration of these X-rays is related to\cr
& the atomic weight of the element\cr
1909 & Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden discover large angle deflections of alpha particles by thin metal foils\cr
1909 & Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrate that alpha particles are doubly ionized helium atoms\cr
1911 & Ernest Rutherford explains the Geiger-Marsden experiment by invoking a nuclear atom model and derives the Rutherford cross section\cr
1912 & Max von Laue suggests using lattice solids to diffract X-rays\cr
1912 & Walter Friedrich and Paul Knipping diffract X-rays in zinc blende\cr
1913 & William Bragg and Lawrence Bragg work out the Bragg condition for strong X-ray reflection\cr
1913 & Henry Moseley shows that nuclear charge is the real basis for numbering the elements\cr
1913 & Niels Bohr presents his quantum model of the atom\cr
1913 & Robert Millikan measures the fundamental unit of electric charge\cr
1913 & Johannes Stark demonstrates that strong electric fields will split the Balmer spectral line series of hydrogen\cr
1914 & James Franck and Gustav Hertz observe atomic excitation\cr
1914 & Ernest Rutherford suggests that the positively charged atomic nucleus contains protons\cr
1915 & Arnold Sommerfeld develops a modified Bohr atomic model with elliptic orbits to explain relativistic fine structure\cr
1916 & Gilbert Lewis and Irving Langmuir formulate an electron shell model of chemical bonding\cr
1917 & Albert Einstein introduces the idea of stimulated radiation emission\cr
1921 & Alfred Land\'e introduces the Lande g-factor\cr
1922 & Arthur Compton studies X-ray photon scattering by electrons\cr
1922 & Otto Stern and Walter Gerlach show ``space quantization''\cr
1923 & Louis de Broglie suggests that electrons may have wavelike properties\cr
1924 & Wolfgang Pauli states the quantum exclusion principle\cr
1924 & John Lennard-Jones proposes a semiempirical interatomic force law\cr
1924 & Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein introduce Bose-Einstein statistics\cr
1925 & George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit postulate electron spin\cr
1925 & Pierre Auger discovers the Auger autoionization process\cr
1925 & Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan formulate quantum matrix mechanics\cr
1926 & Erwin Schr\"odinger states his nonrelativistic quantum wave equation and formulates quantum wave mechanics\cr
1926 & Erwin Schr\"odinger proves that the wave and matrix formulations of quantum theory are mathematically equivalent\cr
1926 & Oskar Klein and Walter Gordon state their relativistic quantum wave equation\cr
1926 & Enrico Fermi discovers the spin-statistics connection\cr
1926 & Paul Dirac introduces Fermi-Dirac statistics\cr
1927 & Clinton Davission, Lester Germer, and George Thomson confirm the wavelike nature of electrons\cr
1927 & Werner Heisenberg states the quantum uncertainty principle\cr
1927 & Max Born interprets the probabilistic nature of wavefunctions\cr
1928 & Chandrasekhara Raman studies optical photon scattering by electrons\cr
1928 & Paul Dirac states his relativistic electron quantum wave equation\cr
1928 & Charles G. Darwin and Walter Gordon solve the Dirac equation for a Coulomb potential\cr
1929 & Oskar Klein discovers the Klein paradox\cr
1929 & Oskar Klein and Y. Nishina derive the Klein-Nishina cross section for high energy photon scattering by electrons\cr
1929 & N.F. Mott derives the Mott cross section for the Coulomb scattering of relativistic electrons\cr
1930 & Paul Dirac introduces electron hole theory\cr
1930 & Erwin Schr\"odinger predicts the {\sevenit zitterbewegung} motion\cr
1930 & Fritz London explains van der Waals forces as due to the interacting fluctuating dipole moments between molecules\cr
1931 & John Lennard-Jones proposes the Lennard-Jones interatomic potential\cr
1931 & Ir\`ene Joliot-Curie and Fr\'ed\'eric Joliot-Curie observe but misinterpret neutron scattering in parafin\cr
1931 & Wolfgang Pauli puts forth the neutrino hypothesis to explain the apparent violation of energy conservation in beta decay\cr
1931 & Linus Pauling discovers resonance bonding and uses it to explain the high stability of symmetric planar molecules\cr
1931 & Paul Dirac shows that charge conservation can be explained if magnetic monopoles exist\cr
1931 & Harold Urey discovers deuterium using evaporation concentration techniques and spectroscopy\cr
1932 & John Cockcroft and Thomas Walton split lithium and boron nuclei using proton bombardment\cr
1932 & James Chadwick discovers the neutron\cr
1932 & Werner Heisenberg presents the proton-neutron model of the nucleus and uses it to explain isotopes\cr
1932 & Carl Anderson discovers the positron\cr
1933 & Max Delbr\"uck suggests that quantum effects will cause photons to be scattered by an external electric field\cr
1934 & Ir\`ene Joliot-Curie and Fr\'ed\'eric Joliot-Curie bombard aluminum atoms with alpha particles to create artificially radioactive\cr
& phosphorus-30\cr
1934 & Leo Szilard realizes that nuclear chain reactions may be possible\cr
1934 & Enrico Fermi formulates his theory of beta decay\cr
1934 & Lev Landau tells Edward Teller that nonlinear molecules may have vibrational modes which remove the degeneracy of an orbitally\cr
& degenerate state\cr
1934 & Enrico Fermi suggests bombarding uranium atoms with neutrons to make a 93 proton element\cr
1934 & Pavel \v Cerenkov reports that light is emitted by relativistic particles traveling in a nonscintillating liquid\cr
1935 & Hideki Yukawa presents a theory of strong interactions and predicts mesons\cr
1935 & Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen put forth the EPR paradox\cr
1935 & Niels Bohr presents his analysis of the EPR paradox\cr
1936 & Eugene Wigner develops the theory of neutron absorption by atomic nuclei\cr
1936 & Hans Jahn and Edward Teller present their systematic study of the symmetry types for which the Jahn-Teller effect is expected\cr
1937 & H. Hellmann finds the Hellmann-Feynman theorem\cr
1937 & Seth Neddermeyer, Carl Anderson, J.C. Street, and E.C. Stevenson discover muons using cloud chamber measurements of cosmic rays\cr
1939 & Richard Feynman finds the Hellmann-Feynman theorem\cr
1939 & Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman bombard uranium salts with thermal neutrons and discover barium among the reaction products\cr
1939 & Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch determine that nuclear fission is taking place in the Hahn-Strassman experiments\cr
1942 & Enrico Fermi makes the first controlled nuclear chain reaction\cr
1942 & Ernst St\"uckelberg introduces the propagator to positron theory and interprets positrons as negative energy electrons moving\cr
& backwards through spacetime\cr
1943 & Sin-Itiro Tomonaga publishes his paper on the basic physical principles of quantum electrodynamics\cr
1947 & Willis Lamb and Robert Retheford measure the Lamb-Retheford shift\cr
1947 & Cecil Powell, C.M.G. Lattes, and G.P.S. Occhialini discover the pi-meson by studying cosmic ray tracks\cr
1947 & Richard Feynman presents his propagator approach to quantum electrodynamics\cr
1948 & Hendrik Casimir predicts a rudimentary attractive Casimir force on a parallel plate capacitor\cr
1951 & Martin Deutsch discovers positronium\cr
1953 & R. Wilson observes Delbr\"uck scattering of 1.33 MeV gamma-rays by the electric fields of lead nuclei\cr
1954 & Chen Yang and Robert Mills investigate a theory of hadronic isospin by demanding local gauge invariance under isotopic spin space\cr
& rotations---first non-Abelian gauge theory\cr
1955 & Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segr\`e, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis discover the antiproton\cr
1956 & Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan detect antineutrinos\cr
1956 & Chen Yang and Tsung Lee propose parity violation by the weak force\cr
1956 & Chien Shiung Wu discovers parity violation by the weak force in decaying cobalt\cr
1957 & Gerhart L\"uders proves the CPT theorem\cr
1957 & Richard Feynman, Murray Gell-Mann, Robert Marshak, and Ennackel Sudarshan propose a V-A Lagrangian for weak interactions\cr
1958 & Marcus Sparnaay experimentally confirms the Casimir effect\cr
1959 & Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm predict the Aharonov-Bohm effect\cr
1960 & R.G. Chambers experimentally confirms the Aharonov-Bohm effect\cr
1961 & Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman discover the Eightfold Way patterns---SU(3) group\cr
1961 & Jeffery Goldstone considers the breaking of global phase symmetry\cr
1962 & Leon Lederman shows that the electron neutrino is distinct from the muon neutrino\cr
1963 & Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig propose the quark/aces model\cr
1964 & Peter Higgs considers the breaking of local phase symmetry\cr
1964 & J.S. Bell shows that all local hidden variable theories must satisfy Bell's inequality\cr
1964 & Val Fitch and James Cronin observe CP violation by the weak force in the decay of K mesons\cr
1967 & Steven Weinberg puts forth his electroweak model of leptons\cr
1969 & J.C. Clauser, M. Horne, A. Shimony, and R. Holt propose a polarization correlation test of Bell's inequality\cr
1970 & Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos, and Luciano Maiani propose the charm quark\cr
1971 & Gerard 't Hooft shows that the Glashow-Salam-Weinberg electroweak model can be renormalized\cr
1972 & S. Freedman and J.C. Clauser perform the first polarization correlation test of Bell's inequality\cr
1973 & David Politzer proposes the asymptotic freedom of quarks\cr
1974 & Burton Richter and Samuel Ting discover the {\sevenit J}/$\psi$ meson implying the existence of the charm quark\cr
1975 & Martin Perl discovers the tauon\cr
1977 & S.W. Herb finds the upsilon resonance implying the existence of the beauty quark\cr
1982 & A. Aspect, J. Dalibard, and G. Roger perform a polarization correlation test of Bell's inequality that rules out conspiratorial\cr
& polarizer communication\cr
1983 & Carlo Rubbia, Simon van der Meer, and the CERN UA-1 collaboration find the W$^\pm$ and Z$^0$ intermediate vector bosons\cr
1989 & The Z$^0$ intermediate vector boson resonance width indicates three quark-lepton generations\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Particle Physics Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1896 & Charles Wilson discovers that energetic particles produce droplet tracks in supersaturated gases\cr
1908 & Hans Geiger and Ernest Rutherford invent the Geiger counter\cr
1911 & Charles Wilson finishes a sophisticated cloud chamber\cr
1934 & Ernest Lawrence and Stan Livingston invent the cyclotron\cr
1945 & Edwin McMillan devises a synchrotron\cr
1952 & Donald Glaser develops the bubble chamber\cr
1968 & Georges Charpak and Roger Bouclier build the first multiwire proportional mode particle detection chamber\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Gravitational Physics and Relativity}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1640 & Ismael Bullialdus suggests an inverse-square gravitational force law\cr
1665 & Isaac Newton deduces the inverse-square gravitational force law from the ``falling'' of the Moon\cr
1684 & Isaac Newton proves that planets moving under an inverse-square force law will obey Kepler's laws\cr
1686 & Isaac Newton uses a fixed length pendulum with weights of varying composition to test the weak equivalence principle to 1 part in 1000\cr
1798 & Henry Cavendish measures the gravitational constant\cr
1845 & Urbain Leverrier observes a 35'' per century excess precession of Mercury's orbit\cr
1876 & William Clifford suggests that the motion of matter may be due to changes in the geometry of space\cr
1882 & Simon Newcomb observes a 43'' per century excess precession of Mercury's orbit\cr
1887 & Albert Michelson and Edward Morley do not detect the ether drift\cr
1889 & Roland von E\"otv\"os uses a torsion fiber balance to test the weak equivalence principle to 1 part in one billion\cr
1893 & Ernst Mach states Mach's principle---first constructive attack on the idea of Newtonian absolute space\cr
1905 & Albert Einstein completes his theory of special relativity and states the law of mass-energy conservation\cr
1907 & Albert Einstein introduces the principle of equivalence of gravitation and inertia and uses it to predict the gravitational redshift\cr
1915 & Albert Einstein completes his theory of general relativity\cr
1916 & Albert Einstein shows that the field equations of general relativity admit wavelike solutions\cr
1918 & J. Lense and Hans Thirring find the gravitomagnetic precession of gyroscopes in the equations of general relativity\cr
1919 & Arthur Eddington leads a solar eclipse expedition which claims to detect gravitational deflection of light by the Sun\cr
1921 & T. Kaluza demonstrates that a five-dimensional version of Einstein's equations unifies gravitation and electromagnetism\cr
1937 & Fritz Zwicky states that galaxies could act as gravitational lenses\cr
1937 & Albert Einstein, Leopold Infeld, and Banesh Hoffman show that the geodesic equations of general relativity can be deduced from\cr
& its field equations\cr
1957 & John Wheeler discusses the breakdown of classical general relativity near singularities and the need for quantum gravity\cr
1960 & Robert Pound and Glen Rebka test the gravitational redshift predicted by the equivalence principle to approximately 1\%\cr
1962 & Robert Dicke, Peter Roll, and R. Krotkov use a torsion fiber balance to test the weak equivalence principle to 2 parts in 100 billion\cr
1964 & Irwin Shapiro predicts a gravitational time delay of radiation travel as a test of general relativity\cr
1965 & Joseph Weber puts the first Weber bar gravitational wave detector into operation\cr
1968 & Irwin Shapiro presents the first detection of the Shapiro delay\cr
1968 & Kenneth Nordtvedt studies a possible violation of the weak equivalence principle for self-gravitating bodies and proposes a new test\cr
& of the weak equivalence principle based on observing the relative motion of the Earth and Moon in the Sun's gravitational field\cr
1976 & Robert Vessot and Martin Levine use a hydrogen maser clock on a Scout D rocket to test the gravitational redshift predicted by\cr
& the equivalence principle to approximately 0.007\%\cr
1979 & Dennis Walsh, Robert Carswell, and Ray Weymann discover the gravitationally lensed quasar Q0957+561\cr
1982 & Joseph Taylor and Joel Weisberg show that the rate of energy loss from the binary pulsar PSR1913+16 agrees with that predicted by\cr
& the general relativistic quadrupole formula to within 5\%\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Black Hole Physics}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1784 & John Michell discusses classical bodies which have escape velocities greater than the speed of light\cr
1795 & Pierre Laplace discusses classical bodies which have escape velocities greater than the speed of light\cr
1916 & Karl Schwarzschild solves the Einstein vacuum field equations for uncharged spherically symmetric systems\cr
1918 & H. Reissner and G. Nordstr\o m solve the Einstein-Maxwell field equations for charged spherically symmetric systems\cr
1923 & George Birkhoff proves that the Schwarzschild spacetime geometry is the unique spherically symmetric solution of the Einstein\cr
& vacuum field equations\cr
1939 & Robert Oppenheimer and Hartland Snyder calculate the collapse of a pressure-free homogeneous fluid sphere and find that it cuts\cr
& itself off from communication with the rest of the universe\cr
1963 & Roy Kerr solves the Einstein vacuum field equations for uncharged rotating systems\cr
1964 & Roger Penrose proves that an imploding star will necessarily produce a singularity once it has formed an event horizon\cr
1965 & Ezra Newman, E. Couch, K. Chinnapared, A. Exton, A. Prakash, and Robert Torrence solve the Einstein-Maxwell field equations for\cr
& charged rotating systems\cr
1968 & Brandon Carter uses Hamilton-Jacobi theory to derive first-order equations of motion for a charged particle moving in the external\cr
& fields of a Kerr-Newman black hole\cr
1969 & Roger Penrose discusses the Penrose process for the extraction of the spin energy from a Kerr black hole\cr
1969 & Roger Penrose proposes the cosmic censorship hypothesis\cr
1971 & Identification of Cygnus X-1/HDE 226868 as a binary black hole candidate system\cr
1972 & Stephen Hawking proves that the area of a classical black hole's event horizon cannot decrease\cr
1972 & James Bardeen, Brandon Carter, and Stephen Hawking propose four laws of black hole mechanics in analogy with the\cr
& laws of thermodynamics\cr
1972 & Jacob Bekenstein suggests that black holes have an entropy proportional to their surface area due to information loss effects\cr
1974 & Stephen Hawking applies quantum field theory to black hole spacetimes and shows that black holes will radiate particles with\cr
& a blackbody spectrum which can cause black hole evaporation\cr
1989 & Identification of GS2023+338/V404 Cygni as a binary black hole candidate system\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Cosmology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1576 & Thomas Digges modifies the Copernican system by removing its outer edge and replacing the edge with a star filled unbounded space\cr
1610 & Johannes Kepler uses the dark night sky to argue for a finite universe\cr
1720 & Edmund Halley puts forth an early form of Olbers' paradox\cr
1744 & Jean-Phillipe de Cheseaux puts forth an early form of Olbers' paradox\cr
1826 & Heinrich Olbers puts forth Olbers' paradox\cr
1917 & Willem de Sitter derives an isotropic static cosmology with a cosmological constant as well as an empty expanding cosmology with a\cr
& cosmological constant\cr
1922 & Vesto Slipher summarizes his findings on the spiral nebulae's systematic redshifts\cr
1922 & Alexander Friedmann finds a solution to the Einstein field equations which suggests a general expansion of space\cr
1927 & Georges-Henri Lema\^\i tre discusses the creation event of an expanding universe governed by the Einstein field equations\cr
1928 & Harold Robertson briefly mentions that Vesto Slipher's redshift measurements combined with brightness measurements of the same\cr
& galaxies indicate a redshift-distance relation\cr
1929 & Edwin Hubble demonstrates the linear redshift-distance relation and thus shows the expansion of the universe\cr
1933 & Edward Milne names and formalizes the cosmological principle\cr
1934 & Georges-Henri Lema\^\i tre interprets the cosmological constant as due to a ``vacuum'' energy with an unusual perfect fluid equation of state\cr
1938 & Paul Dirac presents a cosmological theory where the gravitational constant decreases slowly so that the age of the universe divided by the\cr
& atomic light-crossing time always equals the ratio of the electric force to the gravitational force between a proton and electron\cr
1948 & Ralph Alpher, Hans Bethe, and George Gamow examine element synthesis in a rapidly expanding and cooling universe and suggest that\cr
& the elements were produced by rapid neutron capture\cr
1948 & Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle propose steady state cosmologies based on the perfect cosmological principle\cr
1951 & William McCrea shows that the steady state C-field can be accommodated within general relativity by interpreting it as a\cr
& contribution to the energy-momentum tensor with an unusual equation of state\cr
1961 & Robert Dicke argues that carbon-based life can only arise when the Dirac large numbers hypothesis is true because this is when burning\cr
& stars exist---first use of the weak anthropic principle\cr
1963 & Fred Hoyle and Jayant Narlikar show that the steady state theory can explain the isotropy of the universe because deviations from\cr
& isotropy and homogeneity exponentially decay in time\cr
1964 & Fred Hoyle and Roger Tayler point out that the primordial helium abundance depends on the number of neutrinos\cr
1965 & Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama analyze quasar source count data and discover that the quasar density increases with redshift\cr
1965 & Edward Harrison resolves Olbers' paradox by noting the finite lifetime of stars\cr
1966 & Stephen Hawking and George Ellis show that any plausible general relativistic cosmology is singular\cr
1966 & Jim Peebles shows that the hot Big Bang predicts the correct helium abundance\cr
1967 & Andrey Sakharov presents the requirements for a baryon-antibaryon asymmetry in the universe\cr
1967 & John Bahcall, Wal Sargent, and Maarten Schmidt measure the fine-structure splitting of spectral lines in 3C191 and thereby show that\cr
& the fine-structure constant does not vary significantly with time\cr
1968 & Brandon Carter speculates that perhaps the fundamental constants of nature must lie within a restricted range to allow the emergence\cr
& of life---first use of the strong anthropic principle\cr
1969 & Charles Misner formally presents the Big Bang horizon problem\cr
1969 & Robert Dicke formally presents the Big Bang flatness problem\cr
1973 & Edward Tryon proposes that the universe may be a large scale quantum mechanical vacuum fluctuation where positive mass-energy\cr
& is balanced by negative gravitational potential energy\cr
1974 & Robert Wagoner, William Fowler, and Fred Hoyle show that the hot Big Bang predicts the correct deuterium and lithium abundances\cr
1976 & A.I. Shlyakhter uses samarium ratios from the prehistoric natural fission reactor in Gabon to show that some laws of physics have\cr
& remained unchanged for over two billion years\cr
1977 & Gary Steigman, David Schramm, and James Gunn examine the relation between the primordial helium abundance and number of neutrinos\cr
& and claim that at most five lepton families can exist\cr
1980 & Alan Guth proposes the inflationary Big Bang universe as a possible solution to the horizon and flatness problems\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Cosmic Microwave Background Astronomy}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1934 & Richard Tolman shows that blackbody radiation in an expanding universe cools but remains thermal\cr
1941 & Andrew McKellar uses the excitation of CN doublet lines to measure that the ``effective temperature of space'' is about 2.3 K\cr
1948 & George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Herman predict that a Big Bang universe will have a blackbody cosmic microwave\cr
& background with temperature about 5 K\cr
1955 & Tigran Shmaonov finds excess microwave emission with a temperature of roughly 3 K\cr
1964 & A.G. Doroshkevich and Igor Novikov write an unnoticed paper suggesting microwave searches for the blackbody radiation predicted\cr
& by Gamow, Alpher, and Herman\cr
1965 & Arno Penzias, Robert Wilson, Bernie Burke, Robert Dicke, and James Peebles discover the cosmic microwave background radiation\cr
1966 & Rainer Sachs and Arthur Wolfe theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by gravitational\cr
& potential variations between observers and the last scattering surface\cr
1968 & Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by photons traversing\cr
& time-dependent potential wells\cr
1969 & R.A. Sunyaev and Yakov Zel'dovich study the inverse Compton scattering of microwave background photons by hot electrons\cr
1990 & The COBE satellite shows that the microwave background has a nearly perfect blackbody spectrum and thereby strongly constrains\cr
& the density of the intergalactic medium\cr
1992 & The COBE satellite discovers anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Other Background Radiation Fields}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1912 & Victor Hess discovers that the ionization of air increases with altitude indicating the existence of cosmic radiation\cr
1956 & Herbert Friedman detects evidence for extrasolar X-rays\cr
1962 & Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, F. Paolini, and Bruno Rossi formally discover the X-ray background\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Galaxies, Clusters of Galaxies, and Large Scale Structure}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1521 & Ferdinand Magellan observes the Magellanic Clouds during his circumnavigating expedition\cr
1750 & Thomas Wright discusses galaxies and the shape of the Milky Way\cr
1845 & Lord Rosse discovers a nebula with a distinct spiral shape\cr
1918 & Harlow Shapley demonstrates that globular clusters surround our galaxy like a halo and are not centered on the Earth\cr
1920 & Harlow Shapely and Heber Curtis debate whether or not the spiral nebulae lie within the Milky Way\cr
1923 & Edwin Hubble resolves the Shapely-Curtis debate by finding Cepheids in Andromeda\cr
1932 & Karl Jansky discovers radio noise from the center of the Milky Way\cr
1933 & Fritz Zwicky applies the virial theorem to the Coma cluster and obtains evidence for unseen mass\cr
1936 & Edwin Hubble introduces the spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, and irregular galaxy classifications\cr
1939 & Grote Reber discovers the radio source Cygnus A\cr
1943 & Carl Seyfert identifies six spiral galaxies with unusually broad emission lines\cr
1949 & J.G. Bolton, G.J. Stanley, and O.B. Slee identify NGC 4486 (M87) and NGC 5128 as extragalactic radio sources\cr
1953 & G\'erard de Vaucouleurs discovers that the galaxies within approximately 200 million light years of the Virgo cluster are\cr
& confined to a giant supercluster disk\cr
1954 & Walter Baade and Rudolph Minkowski identify the extragalactic optical counterpart of the radio source Cygnus A\cr
1960 & Thomas Matthews determines the radio position of 3C48 to within 5''\cr
1960 & Allan Sandage optically studies 3C48 and observes an unusual blue quasi stellar object\cr
1962 & Cyril Hazard, M.B. Mackey, and A.J. Shimmins use lunar occultations to determine a precise position for 3C273 and deduce that\cr
& it is a double source\cr
1963 & Maarten Schmidt identifies the redshifted Balmer lines from the quasar 3C273\cr
1973 & Jeremiah Ostriker and James Peebles discover that the amount of visible matter in the disks of typical spiral galaxies is not\cr
& enough for Newtonian gravitation to keep the disks from flying apart or drastically changing shape\cr
1974 & B.L. Fanaroff and J.M. Riley distinguish between edge-darkened (FR I) and edge-brightened (FR II) radio sources\cr
1976 & Sandra Faber and Robert Jackson discover the Faber-Jackson relation between the luminosity of an elliptical galaxy and the\cr
& velocity dispersion in its center\cr
1977 & Brent Tully and Richard Fisher discover the Tully-Fisher relation between the luminosity of an isolated spiral galaxy and the\cr
& velocity of the flat part of its rotation curve\cr
1978 & Steve Gregory and Laird Thompson describe the Coma supercluster\cr
1978 & Vera Rubin, Kent Ford, N. Thonnard, and Albert Bosma measure the rotation curves of several spiral galaxies and find significant\cr
& deviations from what is predicted by the Newtonian gravitation of visible stars\cr
1981 & Robert Kirshner, August Oemler, Paul Schechter, and Stephen Shectman find evidence for a giant void in Bo\"otes with a diameter\cr
& of approximately 100 million light years\cr
1985 & Robert Antonucci and J. Miller discover that the Seyfert II galaxy NGC 1068 has broad lines which can only be seen in polarized\cr
& reflected light\cr
1986 & Amos Yahil, David Walker, and Michael Rowan-Robinson find that the direction of the IRAS galaxy density dipole agrees with the\cr
& direction of the cosmic microwave background temperature dipole\cr
1987 & David Burstein, Roger Davies, Alan Dressler, Sandra Faber, Donald Lynden-Bell, R.J. Terlevich, and Gary Wegner claim that a\cr
& large group of galaxies within about 200 million light years of the Milky Way are moving together towards ``The Great Attractor''\cr
1990 & Michael Rowan-Robinson and Tom Broadhurst discover that the IRAS galaxy F10214+4724 is the brightest known object in the universe\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf The Interstellar Medium and Intergalactic Medium}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1848 & Lord Rosse studies M1 and names it the Crab Nebula\cr
1864 & William Huggins studies the spectrum of the Orion Nebula and shows that it is a cloud of gas\cr
1927 & Ira Bowen explains unidentified spectral lines from space as forbidden transition lines\cr
1930 & Robert Trumpler discovers absorption by interstellar dust by comparing the angular sizes and brightnesses of globular clusters\cr
1944 & Hendrik van de Hulst predicts the 21 cm hyperfine line of neutral interstellar hydrogen\cr
1951 & H.I. Ewen and Edward Purcell observe the 21 cm hyperfine line of neutral interstellar hydrogen\cr
1956 & Lyman Spitzer predicts coronal gas around the Milky Way\cr
1965 & James Gunn and Bruce Peterson use observations of the relatively low absorption of the blue component of the Lyman-alpha line\cr
& from 3C9 to strongly constrain the density and ionization state of the intergalactic medium\cr
1969 & Lewis Snyder, David Buhl, Ben Zuckerman, and Patrick Palmer find interstellar formaldehyde\cr
1970 & Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson find interstellar carbon monoxide\cr
1970 & George Carruthers observes molecular hydrogen in space\cr
1977 & Christopher McKee and Jeremiah Ostriker propose a three component theory of the interstellar medium\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf White Dwarfs, Neutron Stars, and Supernovae}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1054 & Chinese and American Indian astronomers observe the Crab supernova explosion\cr
1572 & Tycho Brahe discovers his supernova in Cassiopeia\cr
1604 & Johannes Kepler's supernova in Serpens is observed\cr
1862 & Alvan Clark observes Sirius B\cr
1866 & William Huggins studies the spectrum of a nova and discovers that it is surrounded by a cloud of hydrogen\cr
1914 & Walter Adams determines an incredibly high density for Sirius B\cr
1926 & Ralph Fowler uses Fermi-Dirac statistics to explain white dwarf stars\cr
1930 & Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovers the white dwarf maximum mass limit\cr
1933 & Fritz Zwicky and Walter Baade propose the neutron star idea and suggest that supernovae might be created by the collapse of\cr
& normal stars to neutron stars---they also point out that such events can explain the cosmic ray background\cr
1939 & Robert Oppenheimer and George Volkoff calculate the first neutron star models\cr
1942 & J.J.L. Duyvendak, Nicholas Mayall, and Jan Oort deduce that the Crab Nebula is a remnant of the 1054 supernova\cr
& observed by Chinese astronomers\cr
1958 & Evry Schatzman, Kent Harrison, Masami Wakano, and John Wheeler show that white dwarfs are unstable to inverse beta decay\cr
1962 & Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, Frank Paolini, and Bruno Rossi discover Sco X-1\cr
1967 & Jocelyn Bell and Anthony Hewish discover radio pulses from a pulsar\cr
1967 & J.R. Harries, Ken McCracken, R.J. Francey, and A.G. Fenton discover the first X-ray transient (Cen X-2)\cr
1968 & Thomas Gold proposes that pulsars are rotating neutron stars\cr
1969 & David Staelin, E.C. Reifenstein, William Cocke, Mike Disney, and Donald Taylor discover the Crab Nebula pulsar thus connecting\cr
& supernovae, neutron stars, and pulsars\cr
1971 & Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, Ed Kellogg, R. Levinson, E. Schreier, and H. Tananbaum discover 4.8 second X-ray pulsations\cr
& from Cen X-3\cr
1974 & Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor discover the binary pulsar PSR1913+16\cr
1977 & Kip Thorne and Anna \.Zytkow present a detailed analysis of Thorne-\.Zytkow objects\cr
1982 & D.C. Backer, Shrinivas Kulkarni, Carl Heiles, M.M. Davis, and Miller Goss discover the millisecond pulsar PSR1937+214\cr
1985 & Michiel van der Klis discovers 30 Hz quasi-periodic oscillations in GX 5-1\cr
1987 & Ian Shelton discovers supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Stellar Astronomy}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-134 & Hipparchus creates the magnitude scale of stellar apparent luminosities\cr
1596 & David Fabricus notices that Mira's brightness varies\cr
1672 & Geminiano Montanari notices that Algol's brightness varies\cr
1686 & Gottfried Kirch notices that Chi Cygni's brightness varies\cr
1718 & Edmund Halley discovers stellar proper motions by comparing his astrometric measurements with those of the Greeks\cr
1782 & John Goodricke notices that the brightness variations of Algol are periodic and proposes that it is partially eclipsed by a body\cr
& moving around it\cr
1784 & Edward Piggot discovers the first Cepheid variable star\cr
1838 & Thomas Henderson, Friedrich Struve, and Friedrich Bessel measure stellar parallaxes\cr
1844 & Friedrich Bessel explains the wobbling motions of Sirius and Procyon by suggesting that these stars have dark companions\cr
1906 & Arthur Eddington begins his statistical study of stellar motions\cr
1908 & Henrietta Leavitt discovers the Cepheid period-luminosity relation\cr
1910 & Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Russell study the relation between magnitudes and spectral types of stars\cr
1924 & Arthur Eddington develops the main-sequence mass-luminosity relationship\cr
1929 & George Gamow proposes hydrogen fusion as the energy source for stars\cr
1938 & Hans Bethe and Carl von Weizs\"acker detail the proton-proton chain and CNO cycle in stars\cr
1939 & Rupert Wildt realizes the importance of the negative hydrogen ion for stellar opacity\cr
1952 & Walter Baade distinguishes between Cepheid I and Cepheid II variable stars\cr
1953 & Fred Hoyle predicts a carbon-12 resonance to allow stellar triple alpha reactions at reasonable stellar interior temperatures\cr
1961 & Chushiro Hayashi publishes his work on the Hayashi track of fully convective stars\cr
1963 & Fred Hoyle and William Fowler conceive the idea of supermassive stars\cr
1964 & Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Richard Feynman develop a general relativistic theory of stellar pulsations and show that\cr
& supermassive stars are subject to a general relativistic instability\cr
1967 & Gerry Neugebauer and Eric Becklin discover the Becklin-Neugebauer object at 10 microns\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Solar Astronomy}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1613 & Galileo Galilei uses sunspot observations to demonstrate the rotation of the Sun\cr
1619 & Johannes Kepler postulates a solar wind to explain the direction of comet tails\cr
1802 & William Wollaston observes dark lines in the solar spectrum\cr
1814 & Joseph Fraunhofer systematically studies the dark lines in the solar spectrum\cr
1834 & Hermann Helmholtz proposes gravitational contraction as the energy source for the Sun\cr
1843 & Heinrich Schwabe announces his discovery of the sunspot cycle and estimates its period to be about ten years\cr
1852 & Edward Sabine shows that sunspot number is correlated with geomagnetic field variations\cr
1859 & Richard Carrington discovers solar flares\cr
1860 & Gustav Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen discover that each element has its own distinct set of spectral lines and use this fact to explain\cr
& the solar dark lines\cr
1861 & F.G.W. Sp\"orer discovers the variation of sunspot latitudes during a solar cycle\cr
1863 & Richard Carrington discovers the differential nature of solar rotation\cr
1868 & Pierre-Jules-C\'esar Janssen and Norman Lockyer discover an unidentified yellow line in solar prominence spectra and suggest it\cr
& comes from a new element which they name ``helium''\cr
1893 & Edward Maunder discovers the 1645--1715 Maunder sunspot minimum\cr
1904 & Edward Maunder plots the first sunspot ``butterfly diagram''\cr
1906 & Karl Schwarzschild explains solar limb darkening\cr
1908 & George Hale discovers the Zeeman splitting of spectral lines from sunspots\cr
1942 & J.S. Hey detects solar radio waves\cr
1949 & Herbert Friedman detects solar X-rays\cr
1960 & Robert Leighton, Robert Noyes, and George Simon discover solar five-minute oscillations by observing the Doppler shifts of solar\cr
& dark lines\cr
1961 & H. Babcock proposes the magnetic coiling sunspot theory\cr
1970 & Roger Ulrich, John Leibacher, and Robert Stein deduce from theoretical solar models that the interior of the Sun could act as a\cr
& resonant acoustic cavity\cr
1975 & Franz-Ludwig Deubner makes the first accurate measurements of the period and horizontal wavelength of the five-minute solar oscillations\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Solar System Astronomy}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-2136 & Chinese astronomers record a solar eclipse\cr
-586 & Thales of Miletus predicts a solar eclipse\cr
-350 & Aristotle argues for a spherical Earth using lunar eclipses and other observations\cr
-280 & Aristarchus uses the size of the Earth's shadow on the Moon to estimate that the Moon's radius is one-third that of the Earth\cr
-200 & Eratosthenes uses shadows to determine that the radius of the Earth is roughly 6,400 km\cr
-150 & Hipparchus uses parallax to determine that the distance to the Moon is roughly 380,000 km\cr
-134 & Hipparchus discovers the precession of the equinoxes\cr
1512 & Nicholas Copernicus first states his heliocentric theory in {\sevenit Commentariolus}\cr
1543 & Nicholas Copernicus shows that his heliocentric theory simplifies planetary motion tables in {\sevenit De Revolutionibus de Orbium Coelestium}\cr
1577 & Tycho Brahe uses parallax to prove that comets are distant entities and not atmospheric phenomena\cr
1609 & Johannes Kepler states his first two empirical laws of planetary motion\cr
1610 & Galileo Galilei discovers Callisto, Europa, Ganymede, and Io\cr
1610 & Galileo Galilei sees Saturn's rings but does not recognize that they are rings\cr
1619 & Johannes Kepler states his third empirical law of planetary motion\cr
1655 & Giovanni Cassini discovers Jupiter's great red spot\cr
1656 & Christian Huygens identifies Saturn's rings as rings and discovers Titan and the Orion Nebula\cr
1665 & Giovanni Cassini determines the rotational speeds of Jupiter, Mars, and Venus\cr
1672 & Giovanni Cassini discovers Rhea\cr
1672 & Jean Richer and Giovanni Cassini measure the astronomical unit to be about 138,370,000 km\cr
1675 & Ole R\"omer uses the orbital mechanics of Jupiter's moons to estimate that the speed of light is about 227,000 km/s\cr
1705 & Edmund Halley publicly predicts the periodicity of Halley's comet and computes its expected path of return in 1758\cr
1715 & Edmund Halley calculates the shadow path of a solar eclipse\cr
1716 & Edmund Halley suggests a high-precision measurement of the Sun-Earth distance by timing the transit of Venus\cr
1758 & Johann Palitzsch observes the return of Halley's comet\cr
1766 & Johann Titius finds the Titius-Bode rule for planetary distances\cr
1772 & Johann Bode publicizes the Titius-Bode rule for planetary distances\cr
1781 & William Herschel discovers Uranus during a telescopic survey of the northern sky\cr
1796 & Pierre Laplace states his nebular hypothesis for the formation of the solar system from a spinning nebula of gas and dust\cr
1801 & Giuseppe Piazzi discovers the asteroid Ceres\cr
1802 & Heinrich Olbers discovers the asteroid Pallas\cr
1821 & Alexis Bouvard detects irregularities in the orbit of Uranus\cr
1825 & Pierre Laplace completes his study of gravitation, the stability of the solar system, tides, the precession of the equinoxes, the\cr
& libration of the Moon, and Saturn's rings in {\sevenit M\'ecanique C\'eleste}\cr
1843 & John Adams predicts the existence and location of Neptune from irregularities in the orbit of Uranus\cr
1846 & Urbain Leverrier predicts the existence and location of Neptune from irregularities in the orbit of Uranus\cr
1846 & Johann Galle discovers Neptune\cr
1846 & William Lassell discovers Triton\cr
1849 & Edouard Roche finds the limiting radius of tidal destruction and tidal creation for a body held together only by its self gravity\cr
& and uses it to explain why Saturn's rings do not condense into a satellite\cr
1856 & James Clerk Maxwell demonstrates that a solid ring around Saturn would be torn apart by gravitational forces and argues that\cr
& Saturn's rings consist of a multitude of tiny satellites\cr
1866 & Giovanni Schiaparelli realizes that meteor streams occur when the Earth passes through the orbit of a comet that has left debris\cr
& along its path\cr
1906 & Max Wolf discovers the Trojan asteroid Achilles\cr
1930 & Clyde Tombaugh discovers Pluto\cr
1930 & Seth Nicholson measures the surface temperature of the Moon\cr
1950 & Jan Oort suggests the presence of a cometary Oort cloud\cr
1951 & Gerard Kuiper argues for an annular reservoir of comets between 40--100 astronomical units from the Sun\cr
1977 & James Elliot discovers the rings of Uranus during a stellar occultation experiment on the Kuiper Airborne Observatory\cr
1978 & James Christy discovers Charon\cr
1978 & Peter Goldreich and Scott Tremaine present a Boltzmann equation model of planetary-ring dynamics for indestructible spherical ring\cr
& particles that do not self-gravitate and find a stability requirement relation between ring optical depth and particle normal\cr
& restitution coefficient\cr
1988 & Martin Duncan, Thomas Quinn, and Scott Tremaine demonstrate that short-period comets come primarily from the Kuiper Belt and not\cr
& the Oort cloud\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Astronomical Maps, Catalogs, and Surveys}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-134 & Hipparchus makes a detailed star map\cr
1678 & Edmund Halley publishes a catalog of 341 southern stars---first systematic southern sky survey\cr
1771 & Charles Messier publishes his first list of nebulae\cr
1864 & John Herschel publishes the {\sevenit General Catalog} of nebulae and star clusters\cr
1890 & John Dreyer publishes the {\sevenit New General Catalog} of nebulae and star clusters\cr
1956 & Completion of the Palomar sky survey with the Palomar 48-inch Schmidt optical reflecting telescope\cr
1962 & A.S. Bennett publishes the {\sevenit Revised 3C Catalog} of 328 radio sources\cr
1965 & Gerry Neugebauer and Robert Leighton begin a 2.2 micron sky survey with a 1.6-meter telescope on Mount Wilson\cr
1993 & Start of the 20 cm VLA FIRST survey\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Telescopes, Observatories, and Observing Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1608 & Hans Lippershey tries to patent an optical refracting telescope\cr
1609 & Galileo Galilei builds his first optical refracting telescope\cr
1641 & William Gascoigne invents telescope cross hairs\cr
1661 & James Gregory proposes an optical reflecting telescope\cr
1668 & Isaac Newton constructs the first optical reflecting telescope\cr
1733 & Chester Moor Hall invents the achromatic lens refracting telescope\cr
1758 & John Dolland reinvents the achromatic lens\cr
1789 & William Herschel finishes a 49-inch optical reflecting telescope---located in Slough, England\cr
1840 & J.W. Draper invents astronomical photography and photographs the Moon\cr
1845 & Lord Rosse finishes the Birr Castle 72-inch optical reflecting telescope---located in Parsonstown, Ireland\cr
1872 & Henry Draper invents astronomical spectral photography and photographs the spectrum of Vega\cr
1890 & Albert Michelson proposes the stellar interferometer\cr
1892 & George Hale finishes a spectroheliograph---allows the Sun to be photographed in the light of one element only\cr
1897 & Alvan Clark finishes the Yerkes 40-inch optical refracting telescope---located in Williams Bay, Wisconsin\cr
1917 & Mount Wilson 100-inch optical reflecting telescope begins operation---located in Mount Wilson, California\cr
1930 & Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot invents the coronagraph\cr
1930 & Karl Jansky builds a 30-meter long rotating aerial radio telescope\cr
1933 & Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot invents the Lyot filter\cr
1934 & Bernhard Schmidt finishes the first 14-inch Schmidt optical reflecting telescope\cr
1936 & Palomar 18-inch Schmidt optical reflecting telescope begins operation---located in Palomar, California\cr
1937 & Grote Reber builds a 31-foot radio telescope\cr
1947 & Bernard Lovell and his group complete the Jodrell Bank 218-foot non-steerable radio telescope\cr
1949 & Palomar 48-inch Schmidt optical reflecting telescope begins operation---located in Palomar, California\cr
1949 & Palomar 200-inch optical reflecting telescope begins regular operation---located in Palomar, California\cr
1957 & Bernard Lovell and his group complete the Jodrell Bank 250-foot steerable radio telescope\cr
1957 & Peter Scheuer publishes his {\sevenit P(D)} method for obtaining source counts of spatially unresolved sources\cr
1960 & Martin Ryle tests Earth rotation aperature synthesis\cr
1960 & Owens Valley 27-meter radio telescopes begin operation---located in Big Pine, California\cr
1963 & Arecibo 300-meter radio telescope begins operation---located in Arecibo, Puerto Rico\cr
1964 & Ryle 1-mile radio interferometer begins operation---located in Cambridge, England\cr
1965 & Owens Valley 40-meter radio telescope begins operation---located in Big Pine, California\cr
1967 & First VLBI images---183 km baseline\cr
1969 & Observations start at Big Bear Solar Observatory---located in Big Bear, California\cr
1970 & Cerro Tololo 158-inch optical reflecting telescope begins operation---located in Cerro Tololo, Chile\cr
1970 & Kitt Peak National Observatory 158-inch optical reflecting telescope begins operation---located near Tucson, Arizona\cr
1974 & Anglo-Australian 153-inch optical reflecting telescope begins operation---located in Siding Springs, Australia\cr
1975 & Gerald Smith, Frederick Landauer, and James Janesick use a CCD to observe Uranus---first astronomical CCD observation\cr
1978 & Multiple Mirror 176-inch equivalent optical/infrared reflecting telescope begins operation---located in Amado, Arizona\cr
1979 & UKIRT 150-inch infrared reflecting telescope begins operation---located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii\cr
1979 & Canada-France-Hawaii 140-inch optical reflecting telescope begins operation---located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii\cr
1980 & Completion of construction of the VLA---located in Socorro, New Mexico\cr
1993 & Keck 10-meter optical/infrared reflecting telescope begins operation---located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Artificial Satellites and Space Probes}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1957 & {\sevenit Sputnik I} is launched---first orbiting satellite\cr
1962 & {\sevenit Mariner 2} is the first mission to Venus\cr
1965 & {\sevenit Mariner 4} sends the first clear pictures of Mars\cr
1966 & {\sevenit Luna 10} becomes the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon\cr
1967 & {\sevenit Venera 4} sends the first data from below the clouds of Venus\cr
1967 & The OSO-3 gamma-ray satellite discovers gamma-ray emission from the plane of the Milky Way\cr
1970 & Launch of {\sevenit Uhuru}---first dedicated X-ray satellite\cr
1972 & Launch of the {\sevenit Copernicus} ultraviolet satellite\cr
1974 & {\sevenit Mariner 10} passes by and photographs Mercury\cr
1974 & Launch of the {\sevenit Ariel V} X-ray satellite\cr
1975 & {\sevenit Venera 9} returns the first pictures of the surface of Venus\cr
1976 & {\sevenit Viking I} and {\sevenit Viking II} land on Mars\cr
1976 & The {\sevenit Vela} and ANS X-ray satellites discover X-ray bursts\cr
1976 & The OSO-8 X-ray satellite shows that X-ray bursts have blackbody spectra\cr
1977 & Launch of the HEAO-1 X-ray satellite\cr
1978 & Launch of the {\sevenit International Ultraviolet Explorer} satellite\cr
1978 & Launch of the {\sevenit Einstein} X-ray satellite (HEAO-2)---first X-ray photographs of astronomical objects\cr
1979 & Launch of the {\sevenit Hakucho} X-ray satellite (ASTRO-A)\cr
1979 & Launch of the {\sevenit Ariel VI} cosmic-ray and X-ray satellite\cr
1979 & {\sevenit Voyager 1} and {\sevenit Voyager 2} send back images of Jupiter and its system\cr
1980 & {\sevenit Voyager 1} sends back images of Saturn and its system\cr
1980 & Launch of the {\sevenit Solar Maximum Mission} satellite\cr
1981 & {\sevenit Voyager 2} sends back images of Saturn and its system\cr
1983 & Launch of the EXOSAT X-ray satellite\cr
1983 & Launch of the {\sevenit Tenma} X-ray satellite (ASTRO-B)\cr
1983 & Launch of the IRAS satellite\cr
1986 & {\sevenit Voyager 2} sends back images of Uranus and its system\cr
1987 & Launch of the {\sevenit Ginga} X-ray satellite (ASTRO-C)\cr
1989 & {\sevenit Voyager 2} sends back images of Neptune and its system\cr
1989 & Launch of the {\sevenit Granat} gamma-ray and X-ray satellite\cr
1989 & Launch of the {\sevenit Hipparcos} satellite\cr
1989 & Launch of the COBE satellite\cr
1990 & Launch of the {\sevenit Hubble Space Telescope}\cr
1990 & Launch of the ROSAT X-ray satellite---first imaging X-ray sky survey\cr
1990 & First observations made with {\sevenit Astro-1} (BBXRT, HUT, UIT, WUPPE)\cr
1991 & Launch of the {\sevenit Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory} satellite\cr
1993 & Launch of the {\sevenit Asca} X-ray satellite (ASTRO-D)\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Biology and Organic Chemistry}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-320 & Theophrastus begins the systematic study of botany\cr
1658 & Jan Swammerdam observes red blood cells under a microscope\cr
1663 & Robert Hooke sees cells in cork using a microscope\cr
1668 & Francesco Redi disproves theories of the spontaneous generation of maggots in putrefying matter\cr
1676 & Anton van Leeuwenhoek observes protozoa and calls them ``animalcules''\cr
1677 & Anton van Leeuwenhoek observes spermatazoa\cr
1683 & Anton van Leeuwenhoek observes bacteria\cr
1765 & Lazzaro Spallanzani disproves many theories of the spontaneous generation of cellular life\cr
1771 & Joseph Priestly discovers that plants convert carbon dioxide into oxygen\cr
1798 & Thomas Malthus discusses human population growth and food production in {\sevenit An Essay on the Principle of Population}\cr
1801 & Jean Lamarck begins the detailed study of invertebrate taxonomy\cr
1809 & Jean Lamarck proposes an inheritance of acquired characteristics theory of evolution\cr
1817 & Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph-Bienaim\'e Caventou isolate chlorophyll\cr
1828 & Karl von Baer discovers the eggs of mammals\cr
1828 & Friedrich W\"ohler synthesizes urea---first synthesis of an organic compound\cr
1836 & Theodor Schwann discovers pepsin in extracts from the stomach lining---first isolation of an animal enzyme\cr
1837 & Theodor Schwann shows that heating air will prevent it from causing putrefaction\cr
1838 & Matthias Schleiden discovers that all living plant tissue is composed of cells\cr
1839 & Theodor Schwann discovers that all living animal tissue is composed of cells\cr
1856 & Louis Pasteur states that microorganisms produce fermentation\cr
1858 & Charles R. Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently propose natural selection theories of evolution\cr
1858 & Rudolf Virchow proposes that cells can only arise from pre-existing cells\cr
1862 & Louis Pasteur convincingly disproves the spontaneous generation of cellular life\cr
1865 & Gregor Mendel presents his experiments on the crossbreeding of pea plants and postulates dominant and recessive factors\cr
1865 & August Kekul\'e realizes that benzene is composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms in a hexagonal ring\cr
1869 & Friedrich Miescher discovers nucleic acids in the nuclei of cells\cr
1874 & Jacobus van't Hoff and Joseph-Achille Le Bel advance a three-dimensional stereochemical representation of organic molecules and\cr
& propose a tetrahedral carbon atom\cr
1876 & Oskar Hertwig and Hermann Fol show that fertilized eggs possess both male and female nuclei\cr
1884 & Emil Fischer begins his detailed analysis of the compositions and structures of sugars\cr
1898 & Martinus Beijerinck uses filtering experiments to show that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by something smaller than a bacteria\cr
& which he names a virus\cr
1906 & Mikhail Tsvett discovers the chromatography technique for organic compound separation\cr
1907 & Ivan Pavlov demonstrates conditioned responses with salivating dogs\cr
1907 & Emil Fischer artificially synthesizes peptide amino acid chains and thereby shows that amino acids in proteins are connected by\cr
& amino group-acid group bonds\cr
1911 & Thomas Morgan proposes that Mendelian factors are arranged in a line on chromosomes\cr
1926 & James Sumner shows that the urease enzyme is a protein\cr
1928 & Otto Diels and Kurt Alder discover the Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction for forming ring molecules\cr
1929 & Phoebus Levene discovers the sugar deoxyribose in nucleic acids\cr
1929 & Edward Doisy and Adolf Butenandt independently discover estrone\cr
1930 & John Northrop shows that the pepsin enzyme is a protein\cr
1931 & Adolf Butenandt discovers androsterone\cr
1932 & Hans Krebs discovers the urea cycle\cr
1933 & Tadeus Reichstein artificially synthesizes vitamin C---first vitamin synthesis\cr
1935 & Rudolf Schoenheimer uses hydrogen-2 as a tracer to examine the fat storage system of rats\cr
1935 & Wendell Stanley crystallizes the tobacco mosaic virus\cr
1935 & Konrad Lorenz describes the imprinting behavior of young birds\cr
1937 & Theodosius Dobzhansky links evolution and genetic mutation in {\sevenit Genetics and the Origin of Species}\cr
1938 & A living coelacanth is found off the coast of southern Africa\cr
1940 & Donald Griffin and Robert Galambos announce their discovery of sonar echolocation by bats\cr
1942 & Max Delbr\"uck and Salvador Luria demonstrate that bacterial resistance to virus infection is caused by random mutation and not\cr
& adaptive change\cr
1944 & Oswald Avery shows that DNA carries the genetic code in pneumococci bacteria\cr
1944 & Robert Woodward and William von Eggers Doering synthesize quinine\cr
1948 & Erwin Chargaff shows that in DNA the number of guanine units equals the number of cytosine units and the number of adenine units\cr
& equals the number of thymine units\cr
1951 & Robert Woodward synthesizes cholesterol and cortisone\cr
1952 & Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase use radioactive tracers to show that DNA is the genetic material in bacteriophage viruses\cr
1952 & Fred Sanger, Hans Tuppy, and Ted Thompson complete their chromatographic analysis of the insulin amino acid sequence\cr
1952 & Rosalind Franklin uses X-ray diffraction to study the structure of DNA and suggests that its sugar-phosphate backbone is on\cr
& its outside\cr
1953 & James Watson and Francis Crick propose a double helix structure for DNA\cr
1953 & Max Perutz and John Kendrew determine the structure of hemoglobin using X-ray diffraction studies\cr
1953 & Stanley Miller shows that amino acids can be formed when simulated lightning is passed through vessels containing water, methane,\cr
& ammonia, and hydrogen\cr
1955 & Severo Ochoa discovers RNA polymerase enzymes\cr
1955 & Arthur Kornberg discovers DNA polymerase enzymes\cr
1960 & Juan Or\'o finds that concentrated solutions of ammonium cyanide in water can produce the nucleotide organic base adenine\cr
1960 & Robert Woodward synthesizes chlorophyll\cr
1967 & John Gurden uses nuclear transplantation to clone a clawed frog---first cloning of a vertebrate\cr
1968 & Fred Sanger uses radioactive phosphorous as a tracer to chromatographically decipher a 120 base long RNA sequence\cr
1970 & Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans discover DNA restriction enzymes\cr
1970 & Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discover reverse transcriptase enzymes\cr
1972 & Robert Woodward synthesizes vitamin B-12\cr
1972 & Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge propose punctuated equilibrium effects in evolution\cr
1974 & Manfred Eigen and Manfred Sumper show that mixtures of nucleotide monomers and RNA-replicase will give rise to RNA molecules which\cr
& replicate, mutate, and evolve\cr
1974 & Leslie Orgel shows that RNA can replicate without RNA-replicase and that zinc aids this replication\cr
1977 & John Corliss, Jack Dymond, Louis Gordon, John Edmond, Richard von Herzen, Robert Ballard, Kenneth Green, David Williams, Arnold\cr
& Bainbridge, Kathy Crane, and Tjeerd van Andel discover chemosynthetically based animal communities located around submarine\cr
& thermal springs on the Gal\'apagos Rift\cr
1977 & Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam present a rapid gene sequencing technique which uses cloning, base destroying chemicals, and\cr
& gel electrophoresis\cr
1977 & Fred Sanger and Alan Coulson present a rapid gene sequencing technique which uses dideoxynucleotides and gel electrophoresis\cr
1978 & Fred Sanger presents the 5,386 base sequence for the virus $\phi$X174 --- first sequencing of an entire genome\cr
1983 & Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction\cr
1984 & Alec Jeffreys devises a DNA fingerprinting method\cr
1985 & Harry Kroto, J.R. Heath, S.C. O'Brien, R.F. Curl, and Richard Smalley discover the unusual stability of the carbon-60\cr
& Buckminsterfullerine molecule and deduce its structure\cr
1990 & Wolfgang Kr\"atschmer, Lowell Lamb, Konstantinos Fostiropoulos, and Donald Huffman discover that Buckminsterfullerine can be\cr
& separated from soot because it is soluble in benzene\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Medicine and Medical Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-420 & Hippocrates begins the scientific study of medicine by maintaining that diseases have natural causes\cr
-280 & Herophilus studies the nervous system and distinguishes between sensory nerves and motor nerves\cr
-250 & Erasistratus studies the brain and distinguishes between the cerebrum and cerebellum\cr
50 & Pedanius Dioscorides describes the medical applications of plants in {\sevenit De Materia Medica}\cr
180 & Galen studies the connection between paralysis and severance of the spinal cord\cr
1242 & Ibn an-Naf\=\i s suggests that the right and left ventricles of the heart are separate and describes the lesser circulation of blood\cr
1249 & Roger Bacon writes about convex lens eyeglasses for treating farsightedness\cr
1403 & Venice implements a quarantine against the Black Death\cr
1451 & Nicholas of Cusa invents concave lens spectacles to treat nearsightedness\cr
1543 & Andreas Vesalius publishes {\sevenit De Fabrica Corporis Humani} which corrects Greek medical errors and revolutionizes medicine\cr
1546 & Gerolamo Fracastoro proposes that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seedlike entities\cr
1553 & Miguel Serveto describes the lesser circulation of blood through the lungs\cr
1559 & Realdo Colombo describes the lesser circulation of blood through the lungs in detail\cr
1603 & Girolamo Fabrici studies leg veins and notices that they have valves which only allow blood to flow toward the heart\cr
1628 & William Harvey explains the vein-artery system and structure of the heart in {\sevenit De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis}\cr
1701 & Giacomo Pylarini gives the first smallpox inoculations\cr
1747 & James Lind discovers that citrus fruits prevent scurvy\cr
1763 & Claudius Aymand performs the first successful appendectomy\cr
1796 & Edward Jenner develops a smallpox vaccination method\cr
1800 & Humphry Davy announces the anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide\cr
1816 & Rene Laennec invents the stethoscope\cr
1842 & Crawford Long performs the first surgical operation using anasthesia\cr
1847 & Ignaz Semmelweis studies and prevents the transmission of puerperal fever\cr
1870 & Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch establish the germ theory of disease\cr
1881 & Louis Pasteur develops an anthrax vaccine\cr
1882 & Louis Pasteur develops a rabies vaccine\cr
1890 & Emil von Behring discovers antitoxins and uses them to develop tetanus and diptheria vaccines\cr
1906 & Frederick Hopkins suggests the existence of vitamins and suggests that a lack of vitamins causes scurvy and rickets\cr
1907 & Paul Ehrlich develops a chemotheraputic cure for sleeping sickness\cr
1921 & Edward Mellanby discovers vitamin D and shows that its absence causes rickets\cr
1928 & Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin\cr
1932 & Gerhard Domagk develops a chemotheraputic cure for streptococcus\cr
1952 & Jonas Salk develops the first polio vaccine\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Pure and Applied Mathematics}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-1700 & Egyptian mathematicians employ primitive fractions\cr
-530 & Pythagoras studies propositional geometry and vibrating lyre strings\cr
-370 & Eudoxus states the method of exhaustion for area determination\cr
-350 & Aristotle discusses logical reasoning in {\sevenit Organon}\cr
-300 & Euclid studies geometry as an axiomatic system in {\sevenit Elements} and states the law of reflection in {\sevenit Catoptrics}\cr
-260 & Archimedes computes $\pi$ to two decimal places using inscribed and cirumscribed polygons and computes the area under a parabolic segment\cr
-200 & Apollonius writes {\sevenit On Conic Sections} and names the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola\cr
250 & Diophantus writes {\sevenit Arithmetica}, the first systematic treatise on algebra\cr
450 & Tsu Ch'ung-Chih and Tsu K\^eng-Chih compute $\pi$ to six decimal places\cr
550 & Hindu mathematicians give zero a numeral representation in a positional notation system\cr
1202 & Leonardo Fibonacci demonstrates the utility of Arabic numerals in his {\sevenit Book of the Abacus}\cr
1424 & Ghiy\=ath al-K\=ash\=\i\ computes $\pi$ to sixteen decimal places using inscribed and cirumscribed polygons\cr
1520 & Scipione Ferro develops a method for solving cubic equations\cr
1535 & Niccol\`o Tartaglia develops a method for solving cubic equations\cr
1540 & Lodovico Ferrari solves the quartic equation\cr
1596 & Ludolf van Ceulen computes $\pi$ to twenty decimal places using inscribed and cirumscribed polygons\cr
1614 & John Napier discusses Napierian logarithms in {\sevenit Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio}\cr
1617 & Henry Briggs discusses decimal logarithms in {\sevenit Logarithmorum Chilias Prima}\cr
1619 & Ren\'e Descartes discovers analytical geometry\cr
1629 & Pierre de Fermat develops a rudimentary differential calculus\cr
1634 & G.P. de Roberval shows that the area under a cycloid is three times the area of its generating circle\cr
1637 & Pierre de Fermat claims to have proven Fermat's Last Theorem in his copy of Diophantus' {\sevenit Arithmetica}\cr
1654 & Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat create the theory of probability\cr
1655 & John Wallis writes {\sevenit Arithmetica Infinitorum}\cr
1658 & Christopher Wren shows that the length of a cycloid is four times the diameter of its generating circle\cr
1665 & Isaac Newton invents his calculus\cr
1668 & Nicholas Mercator and William Brouncker discover an infinite series for the logarithm while attempting to calculate the area under a\cr
& hyperbolic segment\cr
1671 & James Gregory discovers the series expansion for the inverse-tangent function\cr
1673 & Gottfried Leibniz invents his calculus\cr
1675 & Isaac Newton invents an algorithm for the computation of functional roots\cr
1691 & Gottfried Leibniz discovers the technique of separation of variables for ordinary differential equations\cr
1693 & Edmund Halley prepares the first mortality tables statistically relating death rate to age\cr
1696 & Guillaume de L'H\^opital states his rule for the examination of indeterminate forms\cr
1706 & John Machin develops a quickly converging inverse-tangent series for $\pi$ and computes $\pi$ to 100 decimal places\cr
1712 & Brook Taylor develops Taylor series'\cr
1722 & Abraham De Moivre states De Moivre's theorem\cr
1724 & Abraham De Moivre studies mortality statistics and the foundation of the theory of annuities in {\sevenit Annuities on Lives}\cr
1730 & James Stirling publishes {\sevenit The Differential Method}\cr
1733 & Geralamo Saccheri studies what geometry would be like if Euclid's fifth postulate were false\cr
1734 & Leonhard Euler introduces the integrating factor technique for solving first order ordinary differential equations\cr
1736 & Leonhard Euler solves the Koenigsberg bridge problem\cr
1739 & Leonhard Euler solves the general homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients\cr
1742 & Christian Goldbach conjectures that every even number greater than two can be expressed as the sum of two primes\cr
1744 & Leonhard Euler shows the existence of transcendental numbers\cr
1748 & Maria Agnesi discusses analysis in {\sevenit Instituzioni Analitiche ad Uso della Gioventu Italiana}\cr
1761 & Thomas Bayes proves Bayes' theorem\cr
1796 & Karl Gauss presents a method for constructing a heptadecagon using only a compass and straightedge and also shows that only\cr
& polygons with certain numbers of sides can be constructed\cr
1797 & Caspar Wessel associates vectors with complex numbers and studies complex number operations in geometrical terms\cr
1799 & Karl Gauss proves that every polynomial equation has a solution among the complex numbers\cr
1806 & Jean-Robert Argand associates vectors with complex numbers and studies complex number operations in geometrical terms\cr
1807 & Joseph Fourier first announces his discoveries about the trigonometric decomposition of functions\cr
1811 & Karl Gauss discusses the meaning of integrals with complex limits and briefly examines the dependence of such integrals on\cr
& the chosen path of integration\cr
1815 & Sim\'eon Poisson carries out integrations along paths in the complex plane\cr
1817 & Bernard Bolzano presents Bolzano's theorem---a continuous function which is negative at one point and positive at another\cr
& point must be zero for at least one point in between\cr
1824 & Niels Abel partially proves that the general quintic or higher equations do not have algebraic solutions\cr
1822 & Augustin-Louis Cauchy presents the Cauchy integral theorem for integration around the boundary of a rectangle\cr
1825 & Augustin-Louis Cauchy presents the Cauchy integral theorem for general integration paths---he assumes the function being\cr
& integrated has a continuous derivative\cr
1825 & Augustin-Louis Cauchy introduces the theory of residues\cr
1825 & Peter Dirichlet and Adrien Legendre prove Fermat's Last Theorem for n=5\cr
1828 & George Green proves Green's theorem\cr
1829 & Nikolai Lobachevski publishes his work on hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry\cr
1832 & \'Evariste Galois presents a general condition for the solvability of algebraic equations\cr
1832 & Peter Dirichlet proves Fermat's Last Theorem for n=14\cr
1837 & Pierre Wantsel proves that doubling the cube and trisecting the angle are impossible with only a compass and straightedge\cr
1841 & Karl Weierstrass discovers but does not publish the Laurent expansion theorem\cr
1843 & Pierre-Alphonse Laurent discovers and presents the Laurent expansion theorem\cr
1843 & William Hamilton discovers the calculus of quaternions and deduces that they are non-commutative\cr
1847 & George Boole formalizes symbolic logic in {\sevenit The Mathematical Analysis of Logic}\cr
1849 & George Stokes shows that solitary waves can arise from a combination of periodic waves\cr
1850 & Alexandre Puiseux distinguishes between poles and branch points and introduces the concept of essential singular points\cr
1850 & George Stokes proves Stokes' theorem\cr
1854 & Bernhard Riemann introduces Riemannian geometry\cr
1854 & Arthur Cayley shows that quaternions can be used to represent rotations in four-dimensional space\cr
1858 & August M\"obius invents the M\"obius strip\cr
1870 & Felix Klein constructs an analytic geometry for Lobachevski's geometry thereby establishing its self-consistency and the logical\cr
& independence of Euclid's fifth postulate\cr
1873 & Charles Hermite proves that {\sevenit e} is transcendental\cr
1878 & Charles Hermite solves the general quintic equation by means of elliptic and modular functions\cr
1873 & Georg Frobenius presents his method for finding series solutions to linear differential equations with regular singular points\cr
1882 & Ferdinand Lindeman proves that $\pi$ is transcendental and that the circle cannot be squared with a compass and straightedge\cr
1882 & Felix Klein invents the Klein bottle\cr
1895 & Diederik Korteweg and Gustav de Vries derive the KdV equation to describe the development of long solitary water waves in a\cr
& canal of rectangular cross section\cr
1896 & Jacques Hadamard and Charles de La Vall\'ee-Poussin independently prove the prime number theorem\cr
1899 & David Hilbert presents a set of self-consistent geometric axioms in {\sevenit Foundations of Geometry}\cr
1900 & David Hilbert states his list of 23 problems which show where further mathematical work is needed\cr
1901 & \'Elie Cartan develops the exterior derivative\cr
1903 & C. Runge presents a fast Fourier transform algorithm\cr
1908 & Ernst Zermelo axiomatizes set theory\cr
1912 & L.E.J. Brouwer presents the Brouwer fixed-point theorem\cr
1914 & Srinivasa Ramanujan publishes {\sevenit Modular Equations and Approximations to $\pi$}\cr
1928 & John von Neumann begins devising the principles of game theory and proves the minimax theorem\cr
1930 & Casimir Kuratowski shows that the three cottage problem has no solution\cr
1931 & Kurt G\"odel shows that mathematical systems are not fully self-contained\cr
1933 & Karol Borsuk and Stanislaw Ulam present the Borsuk-Ulam antipodal-point theorem\cr
1942 & G.C. Danielson and Cornelius Lanczos develop a fast Fourier transform algorithm\cr
1943 & Kenneth Levenberg proposes a method for nonlinear least squares fitting\cr
1948 & John von Neumann mathematically studies self-reproducing machines\cr
1949 & John von Neumann computes $\pi$ to 2,037 decimal places using ENIAC\cr
1950 & Stanislaw Ulam and John von Neumann present cellular automata dynamical systems\cr
1953 & Nicholas Metropolis introduces the idea of thermodynamic simulated annealing algorithms\cr
1955 & Enrico Fermi, John Pasta, and Stanislaw Ulam numerically study a nonlinear spring model of heat conduction and discover solitary wave\cr
& type behavior\cr
1960 & C.A.R. Hoare invents the quicksort algorithm\cr
1960 & Irving Reed and Gustave Solomon present the Reed-Solomon error-correcting code\cr
1961 & Daniel Shanks and John Wrench compute $\pi$ to 100,000 decimal places using an inverse-tangent identity and an IBM-7090 computer\cr
1962 & Donald Marquardt proposes the Levenberg-Marquardt nonlinear least squares fitting algorithm\cr
1963 & Martin Kruskal and Norman Zabusky analytically study the Fermi-Pasta-Ulam heat conduction problem in the continuum limit and find\cr
& that the KdV equation governs this system\cr
1965 & Martin Kruskal and Norman Zabusky numerically study colliding solitary waves in plasmas and find that they do not disperse after collisions\cr
1965 & James Cooley and John Tukey present an influential fast Fourier transform algorithm\cr
1966 & E.J. Putzer presents two methods for computing the exponential of a matrix in terms of a polynomial in that matrix\cr
1976 & Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken use a computer to solve the four-color problem\cr
1983 & Gerd Faltings proves the Mordell Conjecture and thereby shows that there are only finitely many whole number solutions for each\cr
& exponent of Fermat's Last Theorem\cr
1985 & Louis de Branges proves the Bieberbach Conjecture\cr
1987 & Yasumasa Kanada, David Bailey, Jonathan Borwein, and Peter Borwein use iterative modular equation approximations to elliptic\cr
& integrals and a NEC SX-2 supercomputer to compute $\pi$ to 134 million decimal places\cr
1993 & Andrew Wiles proves part of the Taniyama-Shimura Conjecture and thereby proves Fermat's Last Theorem\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Geology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1620 & Francis Bacon notices the jigsaw fit of the opposite shores of the Atlantic Ocean\cr
1701 & Edmund Halley suggests using the salinity and evaporation of the Mediterranean to determine the age of the Earth\cr
1837 & Louis Agassiz begins his glaciation studies which eventually demonstrate that the Earth has had at least one Ice Age\cr
1862 & Lord Kelvin attempts to find the age of the Earth by examining its cooling time and estimates that the Earth is\cr
& between 20--400 million years old\cr
1903 & George Darwin and John Joly claim that radioactivity is partially responsible for the Earth's heat\cr
1907 & Bertram Boltwood proposes that the amount of lead in uranium and thorium ores might be used to determine the Earth's\cr
& age and crudely dates some rocks to have ages between 410--2200 million years\cr
1912 & Alfred Wegener proposes that all the continents once formed a single landmass called Pangaea that broke apart via\cr
& continental drift\cr
1913 & Albert Michelson measures tides in the solid body of the Earth\cr
1935 & Charles Richter invents a logarithmic scale to measure the intensity of earthquakes\cr
1953 & Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen discover the Great Global Rift running along the Mid-Oceanic Ridge\cr
1960 & Harry Hess proposes that new sea floor might be created at mid-ocean rifts and destroyed at deep sea trenches\cr
1963 & F.J. Vine and D.H. Matthews explain the stripes of magnetized rocks with alternating magnetic polarities running\cr
& parallel to mid-ocean ridges as due to sea floor spreading and the periodic geomagnetic field reversals\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Geography, Meteorology, Paleontology, Science Philosophy, and Science Publishing}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
25 & Pomponius Mela formalizes the climatic zone system\cr
1569 & Gerardus Mercator issues the first Mercator projection map\cr
1620 & Francis Bacon analyzes the scientific method in his {\sevenit Great Instauration of Learning}\cr
1686 & Edmund Halley presents a systematic study of the trade winds and monsoons and identifies solar heating as the cause of\cr
& atmospheric motions\cr
1686 & Edmund Halley establishes the relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level\cr
1716 & Edmund Halley suggests that aurorae are caused by ``magnetic effluvia'' moving along the Earth's magnetic field lines\cr
1822 & Gideon Mantell discovers the fossilized skeleton of an iguanodon dinosaur\cr
1869 & Joseph Lockyer starts the scientific journal {\sevenit Nature}\cr
1909 & Discovery of the Burgess Shale Cambrian fossil site\cr
1920 & Andrew Douglass proposes dendrochronology dating\cr
1920 & Milutin Milankovich proposes that long term climatic cycles may be due to changes in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and\cr
& changes in the Earth's obliquity\cr
1947 & Willard Libby introduces carbon-14 dating\cr
1949 & Edward Murphy states his law\cr
1974 & Donald Johanson and Tom Gray discover a 3.5 million-year-old female hominid fossil that is 40\% complete and name it ``Lucy''\cr
1980 & Luis Alvarez, Walter Alvarez, Frank Asaro, and Helen Michel propose that a giant comet or asteroid may have struck the Earth\cr
& approximately 65 million years ago thereby causing massive extinctions and enriching the iridium in the K-T layer\cr
1984 & Hou Xianguang discovers the Chengjiang Cambrian fossil site\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Agriculture and Food Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-1800 & Fermentation of dough, grain, and fruit juices is discovered\cr
600 & The moldboard plow is invented in eastern Europe\cr
850 & Coffee is invented in Arabia\cr
1300 & Arnau de Villanova develops alcohol distillation\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Clothing and Textiles Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1733 & John Kay patents the flying shuttle loom\cr
1764 & James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny\cr
1794 & Eli Whitney patents the cotton gin\cr
1801 & Joseph-Marie Jacquard invents the Jacquard punched card loom\cr
1856 & William Perkin invents the first synthetic dye\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Motor and Engine Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1698 & Thomas Savery builds a steam-powered water pump for pumping water out of mines\cr
1712 & Thomas Newcomen builds a piston-and-cylinder steam-powered water pump for pumping water out of mines\cr
1769 & James Watt patents his first improved steam engine\cr
1821 & Michael Faraday builds an electricity-powered motor\cr
1876 & Nikolaus Otto designs a four-stroke internal-combustion engine\cr
1888 & Nikola Tesla patents the induction motor\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Transportation Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-3500 & Wheeled carts are invented\cr
-3500 & River boats are invented\cr
-2000 & Horses are tamed and used for transport\cr
770 & Iron horseshoes come into common use\cr
1492 & Leonardo da Vinci describes a flying machine\cr
1662 & Blaise Pascal invents a horse-drawn public bus which has a regular route, schedule, and fare system\cr
1740 & Jacques de Vaucanson demonstrates his clockwork powered carriage\cr
1783 & Joseph Montgolfier and \'Etienne Montgolfier launch the first hot air balloons\cr
1801 & Richard Trevithick builds a prototype steam powered railroad locomotive\cr
1807 & Isaac de Rivas makes a hydrogen gas powered vehicle\cr
1814 & George Stephenson builds the first practical steam powered railroad locomotive\cr
1862 & Jean Lenoir makes a gasoline-engine automobile\cr
1868 & George Westinghouse invents the compressed air locomotive brake\cr
1900 & Ferdinand von Zeppelin builds the first successful dirigible\cr
1903 & Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright fly the first motor-driven airplane\cr
1908 & Henry Ford develops the assembly line method of automobile manufacturing\cr
1947 & First supersonic flight\cr
1969 & First manned mission to the Moon\cr
1981 & First flight of the space shuttle\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Underwater Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1716 & Edmund Halley builds a diving bell\cr
1801 & Robert Fulton builds the first submarine\cr
1819 & Augustus Siebe invents a diving suit which receives air pumped down from the surface\cr
1934 & Charles Beebe dives to 3,028 feet using a bathysphere\cr
1943 & Jacques-Yves Cousteau makes the first dive with a compressed-air aqualung\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Communication Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-3500 & The Sumerians develop cuneiform writing and the Egyptians develop hieroglyphic writing\cr
-1500 & The Phoenicians develop an alphabet\cr
-170 & Parchment is discovered in Pergamum\cr
105 & Tsai Lun invents paper\cr
350 & The Chinese develop a method for printing pages using symbols carved on a wooden block\cr
1450 & The Chinese develop wooden block movable type printing\cr
1454 & Johannes Gutenberg finishes a printing press with metal movable type\cr
1793 & Claude Chappe establishes the first long-distance semaphore telegraph line\cr
1831 & Joseph Henry proposes and builds an electric telegraph\cr
1835 & Samuel Morse develops the Morse code\cr
1843 & Samuel Morse builds the first long distance electric telegraph line\cr
1876 & Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson exhibit an electric telephone\cr
1877 & Thomas Edison patents the phonograph\cr
1889 & Almon Strowger patents the direct dial telephone\cr
1901 & Guglielmo Marconi transmits radio signals from Cornwall to Newfoundland\cr
1925 & John Baird transmits the first television signal\cr
1958 & Chester Carlson presents the first photocopier suitable for office use\cr
1966 & Charles Kao realizes that silica-based waveguides offer a practical way to transmit light via total internal reflection\cr
1973 & Akira Hasegawa and Fred Tappert propose the use of solitary waves to carry information in optical fibers\cr
1977 & Donald Knuth begins work on \TeX \cr
1980 & Linn Mollenauer, Rogers Stollen, and James Gordon demonstrate that solitary waves can be propagated through optical fibers\cr
1991 & Anders Olsson transmits solitary waves through an optical fiber with a data rate of 32 billion bits per second\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Photography Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1826 & Joseph Ni\'epce takes the first permanent photograph\cr
1891 & Thomas Edison patents the ``kinetoscopic camera''\cr
1973 & Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image forming CCD chip---100 rows and 100 columns\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Calculator and Computer Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1617 & John Napier discusses the Napier's bones calculating method in {\sevenit Rabdologia}\cr
1622 & William Oughtred invents the slide rule\cr
1623 & Wilhelm Schickard builds his 6-digit ``Calculating Clock'' that can add and subtract\cr
1645 & Blaise Pascal completes his 5-digit ``Pascaline'' that can add\cr
1930 & Vannevar Bush builds a partly electronic computer capable of solving differential equations\cr
1946 & Presper Eckert and John Mauchly announce ENIAC, the first practical entirely electronic computer\cr
1948 & William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen invent the transistor\cr
1950 & Alan Turing proposes the ``Turing test'' criterion for an intelligent machine\cr
1951 & Presper Eckert and John Mauchly finish UNIVAC I, the first mass-produced electronic computer\cr
1971 & Texas Instruments releases the first easily portable electronic calculator\cr
1977 & Apple Computer releases the Apple II personal computer\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Time Measurement Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-270 & Ctesibius builds a popular water clock\cr
-46 & Julius Caesar and Sosigenes develop a solar calendar with leap years\cr
1502 & Peter Henlein builds the first pocketwatch\cr
1582 & Pope Gregory XIII, Aloysius Lilius, and Christopher Clavius introduce a Gregorian calendar with an improved leap year system\cr
1656 & Christian Huygens builds the first accurate pendulum clock\cr
1737 & John Harrison presents the first stable nautical chronometer, thereby allowing for precise longitude determination while at sea\cr
1928 & Joseph Horton and Warren Morrison build the first quartz crystal oscillator clock\cr
1946 & Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell develop nuclear magnetic resonance\cr
1949 & Harold Lyons develops an atomic clock based on the quantum mechanical vibrations of the ammonia molecule\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Temperature and Pressure Measurement Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1592 & Galileo Galilei builds a crude thermometer using the contraction of air to draw water up a tube\cr
1643 & Evangelista Torricelli invents the mercury barometer\cr
1714 & Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the mercury in glass thermometer\cr
1864 & Antoine Becquerel suggests an optical pyrometer\cr
1892 & Henri-Louis Le Ch\^atelier builds the first optical pyrometer\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Microscope Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1590 & Zacharias Janssen invents the microscope\cr
1674 & Anton van Leeuwenhoek invents the compound microscope\cr
1932 & Ernst Ruska builds the first electron microscope\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Low Temperature Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1891 & Z.F. Wroblewski condenses experimentally useful quantities of liquid air\cr
1892 & James Dewar invents the vacuum-insulated, silver-plated glass Dewar\cr
1908 & Heike Kammerlingh Onnes liquifies helium\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Rocket and Missile Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
1926 & Robert Goddard launches the first liquid fuel rocket\cr
1944 & Wernher von Braun and Walter Dornberger launch the first V2 rocket\cr
1958 & Launch of the first ICBM\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Materials Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-4000 & Copper metallurgy is invented and copper is used for ornamentation\cr
-3000 & Bronze is used for weapons and armor\cr
-1500 & The Hittites develop crude iron metallurgy\cr
-1200 & Invention of steel when iron and charcoal are combined properly\cr
700 & Porcelain is invented in China\cr
1839 & Charles Goodyear invents vulcanized rubber\cr
1909 & Leo Baekeland presents the Bakelite hard thermosetting plastic\cr
1931 & Julius Nieuwland develops the synthetic rubber neoprene\cr
1931 & Wallace Carothers develops nylon\cr
1953 & Karl Ziegler discovers metallic catalysts which greatly improve the strength of polyethylene polymers\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf Lighting Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-3000 & Candles are invented\cr
1815 & Humphry Davy invents the miner's safety lamp\cr
1879 & Thomas Edison patents the carbon-thread incandescent lamp\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\vskip 0.1 in
\noindent {\sevenbf General Technology}
\vskip 0.05 in
\halign{
# & \hskip 0.040in \hbox{#}\cr
-7000 & Pottery is invented\cr
-700 & Invention of aqueducts\cr
-640 & Invention of coins\cr
-400 & Catapults are invented in Syracuse\cr
-150 & Hipparchus invents the astrolabe\cr
-100 & Glass-blowing is discovered in Syria\cr
700 & Windmills are invented in Persia\cr
1050 & Crossbows are invented in France\cr
1249 & Roger Bacon states formulas for gunpowder\cr
1346 & Cannon come into wide use\cr
1480 & Martin Behaim introduces the nautical astrolabe\cr
1480 & Leonardo da Vinci describes a workable parachute\cr
1645 & Otto von Guericke builds the first vacuum pump\cr
1731 & John Hadley invents the sextant\cr
1800 & Alessandro Volta announces his invention of the electric battery\cr
1823 & William Sturgeon invents the electromagnet\cr
1840 & Justus von Liebig invents artificial fertilizer\cr
1867 & Alfred Nobel patents dynamite\cr
1880 & John Milne invents the seismograph\cr
1885 & William Stanley invents the alternating current transformer\cr
1903 & Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of papers discussing the use of rocketry to reach outer space, space suits, and\cr
& colonization of the solar system\cr
1917 & Paul Langevin develops a sonar echolocation system\cr
1925 & Theodor Svedberg develops the ultra-centrifuge, thereby revolutionizing the determination of molecular weights\cr
1935 & Robert Watson-Watt devises a microwave radar\cr
1945 & First nuclear fission bomb exploded at the Trinity test site, about sixty miles northwest of Alamogordo, New Mexico\cr
1952 & First thermonuclear fusion bomb exploded\cr
1952 & Wernher von Braun discusses the technical details of a manned exploration of Mars in {\sevenit The Mars Project}\cr
1953 & Charles Townes makes the first maser\cr
1954 & Construction of the first nuclear power reactor\cr
1960 & Theodore Maiman makes the first laser\cr
}
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
\end
|
|
Disclaimer: The file contained in the
box above or displayed in a separate window from a link in the
box above is NOT owned nor implied to
be owned by BeYoND THe iLLuSioN. Most files at BeYoND THe
iLLuSioN are originally from public Bulletin Board Systems
(BBS) which were popular in the days before the Internet or
from gopher, web, and FTP sites from the early days of the
Internet which no longer exist today. Essentially, all files
were acquired from the public domain in one for or another.
However, there have been occasions when copyright protected
material has appeared on BeYoND THe iLLuSIoN without permission
of the copyright holder. In these instances, we have and will
continue to remove the copyright protected file as soon as it
is brought to our attention. This can now be done using our Report Copyright Material form. Fill
out the form, and the webmaster will be notified of the
situation.
There are also times when files found on BeYoND THe iLLuSioN
have a real home somewhere else on the Internet. In these
instances, we will gladly replace the file with a link to its
true home whenever it is brought to our attention. If you know
of the true home of any of these files, you can use our Report Original URL form to bring it yo our
attention.
|
