Area : I_UFO
Date : Nov 20 '95, 16:04
From : Joe Schultz, 1:114/262
To   : All
Subj : Ancient Civilization


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Note:  The following five posts come from Compton's Interac-
tive Encyclopedia Copyright c 1993, 1994 Compton's NewMedia,
Inc. It is for those who want a further understanding of the
cultural and intellectual status of those precursers of mod-
ern man; from the first few civilizations known to man.  JWS
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                   ANCIENT CIVILIZATION

The   term   civilization  basically  means  the  level   of
development  at  which  people live together  peacefully  in
communities. Ancient civilization refers specifically to the
first  settled and stable communities that became the  basis
for later states, nations, and empires.

The  study  of  ancient civilization is concerned  with  the
earliest segments of the much broader subject called ancient
history.  The  span  of  ancient  history  began  with   the
invention  of writing in about 3100 BC and lasted  for  more
than  35  centuries. Mankind existed long before the written
word,  but  writing made the keeping of a historical  record
possible (see Man).

The  first ancient societies arose in Mesopotamia and  Egypt
in  the  Middle East, in the Indus Valley region  of  modern
Pakistan, in the Huang He (Yellow River) valley of China, on
the  island  of  Crete  in the Aegean Sea,  and  in  Central
America. All of these civilizations had certain features  in
common.  They  built  cities,  invented  forms  of  writing,
learned   to  make  pottery  and  use  metals,  domesticated
animals,  and created fairly complex social structures  with
class systems and diverse types of work.

Apart  from  written  records and carved  inscriptions,  the
knowledge about ancient peoples is derived from the work  of
archaeologists.  Most  of  the  significant   archaeological
findings  have been made in the past 200 years. The Sumerian
culture of Mesopotamia was discovered in the 1890s, and some
of the most important archaeological digs in China were made
after the late 1970s. (See also Archaeology.)

            Agriculture The Basis of Civilization

The  single,  decisive  factor that  made  it  possible  for
mankind  to settle in permanent communities was agriculture.
After farming was developed in the Middle East in about 6500
BC, people living in tribes or family units did not have  to
be  on  the  move continually searching for food or  herding
their  animals. Once people could control the production  of
food and be assured of a reliable annual supply of it, their
lives were completely changed.

People began to found permanent communities in fertile river
valleys.  Settlers  learned  to  use  the  water  supply  to
irrigate  the  land.  Being settled in  one  place  made  it
possible  to  domesticate animals in order to provide  other
sources of food and clothing.

Farming  was  a  revolutionary discovery. It not  only  made
settlements possible and ultimately the building  of  cities
but it also made available a reliable food supply. With more
food  available,  more  people  could  be  fed.  Populations
therefore  increased. The growing number of people available
for  more  kinds  of  work led to the  development  of  more
complex  social structures. With a food surplus, a community
could support a variety of workers who were not farmers.

Farming  the world over has always relied upon a  dependable
water  supply. For the earliest societies this meant  rivers
and   streams   or   regular  rainfall.  The   first   great
civilizations  grew  up along rivers. Rainy  seasons  helped
develop later communities.

All  of the ancient civilizations probably developed in much
the same way, in spite of regional and climatic differences.
As villages grew, the accumulation of more and heavier goods
became possible. Heavier pottery replaced animal-skin gourds
as  containers  for food and liquids. Cloth could  be  woven
from  wool  and  flax. Permanent structures  made  of  wood,
brick, and stone could be erected.

The  science  of  mathematics  was  an  early  outgrowth  of
agriculture. Men studied the movements of the moon, sun, and
planets  to calculate seasons. In so doing they created  the
first  calendars.  With  a  calendar  it  was  possible   to
calculate the arrival of each growing season. Measurement of
land  areas  was necessary if property was to be  accurately
divided.  Measurements of amounts for example, of  seeds  or
grains was also a factor in farming and housekeeping.  Later
came  measures  of  value as commodity  and  money  exchange
became common.

The use of various ways of measuring led naturally to record
keeping,  and  for this some form of writing was  necessary.
The  earliest  civilizations all seem to have used  picture-
writing pictures representing both sounds and objects to the
reader.  The  best known of the ancient writing  systems  is
probably  Egyptian  hieroglyphics, a  term  meaning  "sacred
carvings,"   since  many  of  the  earliest  writings   were
inscribed on stone.

All  of  the  major  ancient civilizations  in  Mesopotamia,
Egypt,  the  Indus  Valley, and China  emerged  in  the  4th
millennium  BC.  Historians  still  debate  over  which  one
emerged first. It may well have been the Middle East, in  an
area called the Fertile Crescent. This region stretches from
the  Nile River in Egypt northward along the coast of former
Palestine,  then eastward into Asia to include  Mesopotamia.
In  this  area  people  settled  along  the  riverbanks  and
practiced  field agriculture. This kind of farming  depended
on the reproduction of seed, normally from grain crops.

                         Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia  (from  a Greek term meaning  "between  rivers")
lies  between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, a region that
is  part of modern Iraq (see Mesopotamia). By about 5000 BC,
small  tribes  of farmers had made their way  to  the  river
valleys.  On the floodplains they raised wheat, barley,  and
peas.  They  cut  through the riverbanks so that  water  for
their crops could flow to lower lying soil.

These early irrigation systems were more fully developed  by
the  Sumerians in Mesopotamia, who drained marshes  and  dug
canals,  dikes,  and  ditches. The need for  cooperation  on
these  large  irrigation  projects  led  to  the  growth  of
government  and  law. The Sumerians are thus  credited  with
forming the earliest of the ancient civilizations.

The  land of the Sumerians was called Sumer (Shinar  in  the
Bible).  Their origins are shrouded in the past.  They  were
not  Semites,  like most of the peoples of the region;  they
spoke a language unrelated to other known tongues. They  may
have  come  to southern Mesopotamia from Persia before  4000
BC.

Sumerian  towns  and cities included Eridu, Nippur,  Lagash,
Kish,  and  Ur.  The cities differed from primitive  farming
settlements.  They were not composed of family-owned  farms,
but  were ringed by large tracts of land. These tracts  were
thought  to  be  "owned" by a local god. A priest  organized
work  groups of farmers to tend the land and provide barley,
beans, wheat, olives, grapes, and flax for the community.

These  early  cities, which existed by 3500 BC, were  called
temple  towns because they were built around the  temple  of
the  local  god.  The temples were eventually  built  up  on
towers called ziggurats (holy mountains), which had ramps or
staircases winding up around the exterior. Public  buildings
and marketplaces were built around these shrines.

The temple towns grew into city-states, which are considered
the  basis  of the first true civilizations. At a time  when
only  the  most  rudimentary  forms  of  transportation  and
communication were available, the city-state  was  the  most
governable type of human settlement. City-states were  ruled
by  leaders,  called ensis, who were probably authorized  to
control  the  local  irrigation systems.  The  food  surplus
provided by the farmers supported these leaders, as well  as
priests, artists, craftsmen, and others.

The   Sumerians   contributed   to   the   development    of
metalworking, wheeled carts, and potter's wheels.  They  may
have  invented  the  first form of  writing.  They  engraved
pictures  on  clay  tablets in a form of  writing  known  as
cuneiform (wedge-shaped). The tablets were used to keep  the
accounts  of the temple food storehouses. By about  2500  BC
these  picture-signs were being refined  into  an  alphabet.
(See also Alphabet; Writing.)

The  Sumerians  developed  the first  calendar,  which  they
adjusted  to the phases of the moon. The lunar calendar  was
adopted  by the Semites, Egyptians, and Greeks. An  increase
in  trade  between Sumerian cities and between  Sumeria  and
other,  more distant regions led to the growth of a merchant
class.

The  Sumerians organized a complex mythology  based  on  the
relationships  among the various local gods  of  the  temple
towns.  In  Sumerian religion, the most important gods  were
seen  as  human  forms of natural forces  sky,  sun,  earth,
water,  and  storm.  These gods, each originally  associated
with  a  particular city, were worshipped not  only  in  the
great temples but also in small shrines in family homes.

Warfare between cities eventually led to the rise of  kings,
called  lugals, whose authority replaced that of  city-state
rulers.  Sumeria became a more unified state, with a  common
culture  and  a  centralized government.  This  led  to  the
establishment of a bureaucracy and an army. By 2375 BC, most
of Sumer was united under one king, Lugalzaggisi of Umma.

                           Babylon

The Sumerians were conquered by their Semitic neighbors. But
their  civilization was carried on by their  successors  the
Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Chaldeans.

The Babylonians made distinct contributions to the growth of
civilization.  They  added to the  knowledge  of  astronomy,
advanced  the knowledge of mathematics, and built the  first
great  capital city, Babylon. The Babylonian King  Hammurabi
set forth the Code of Hammurabi about 1800 BC. (This was the
most  complete compilation of Babylonian law and one of  the
first great law codes in the world (see Hammurabi; Law).

                            Egypt

Egyptian  farmers had settled in the long and narrow  valley
of  the  Nile River by 5000 BC. Within 2,000 years they  had
invented  writing,  built  massive  irrigation  works,   and
established a culture that bequeathed the pyramids and other
magnificent  monuments to posterity. The  primitive  farming
settlements  of  Egypt were concerned with  the  raising  of
vegetables,  grains, and animals. These  settlements  slowly
gave way to larger groupings of people. Probably the need to
control  the  Nile  floodwaters  through  dams  and   canals
eventually led to the rise of government in the region.

By  the end of the prehistoric period before 3100 BC,  Egypt
was  divided into two kingdoms. Lower Egypt had its  capital
at Buto, while Upper Egypt was centered at Hierakonpolis. In
this   period  travelers  brought  in  ideas  from  Sumeria,
including the concepts of writing and the pottery wheel.

Egyptian civilization began with the unification in 3100  BC
of the upper and lower regions by King Menes. He established
a  new  capital  at  Memphis.  In  this  era  the  Egyptians
developed  the first 365-day calendar, discovered the  plow,
made  use  of  copper, developed hieroglyphic  writing,  and
began to build with stone. Trade and exploration flourished.

The  Egyptians  were ruled by kings known  as  pharaohs  who
claimed  to  be descended from the god Horus.  These  kings,
supported by a priestly class, lived in splendor;  and  they
saw  to  it that after their deaths they would be buried  in
splendor.  The  tombs  built  for  them  were  designed   as
storehouses to hold all the things that the kings would need
in the afterlife.

The  earliest  royal  tombs  foreshadowed  the  later  great
monuments, the pyramids. By about 2700 BC the first  pyramid
was  built,  in  Saqqara.  The three  great  pyramids  still
standing near Cairo were built between 2650 and 2500 BC.

Early Egyptian history is divided into three major eras: the
Old  Kingdom  (2700-2200 BC), the Middle Kingdom  (2050-1800
BC), and the New Kingdom (1570-1090 BC). By the dawn of  the
Old  Kingdom,  the characteristics of Egyptian  civilization
had   already  been  firmly  established.  The  periods  not
accounted  for  by the dates are believed  to  be  times  of
decline known as the Intermediate Periods.

                            India

The  valley  of  the  Indus River is considered  to  be  the
birthplace  of  Indian civilization. Located on  the  Indian
subcontinent in modern Pakistan, the Indus civilization  was
not  discovered  by archaeologists until 1924.  The  ancient
history  of  this region is obscured by legend. It  appears,
however,  that  by  4000 BC primitive farmers  were  raising
vegetables, grains, and animals along the riverbank. By 2700
BC  two major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and numerous
smaller towns had emerged.

There is some evidence that Mesopotamian traders reached the
early  Indian  people by sailing from Sumeria to  the  Indus
Valley.  While the Indians shared some developments such  as
complex  irrigation  and drainage systems  and  the  art  of
writing  with the people of Sumeria, they also  developed  a
unique cultural style of their own.

What little is known of the Indus civilization suggests that
it  had  large  cities  that were  well  laid-out  and  well
fortified. There were public buildings, palaces, baths,  and
large  granaries  to  hold agricultural  produce.  The  many
artifacts and artworks found by archaeologists indicate that
the  residents of the Indus had reached a fairly high  level
of culture before their civilization was destroyed.

According  to  the  Rig Veda, the ancient  Hindu  scriptures
written  after  about 1500 BC, Aryan invaders conquered  the
earliest Indian civilization. The Aryans, who were a nomadic
people  from the Eurasian steppes, imposed on Indian society
a  caste system, which persists to the present day in  Hindu
law.  The caste system, which divides all people into social
classes with differing rights and obligations, was a  formal
expression of the interdependent labor division seen in  all
civilizations (see Hinduism). By the 6th century BC at least
16   Aryan  states  had  been  established  on  the   Indian
subcontinent and Brahmanism was flourishing.

                            Crete

By about 2500 BC a civilization had emerged on the island of
Crete in the Aegean Sea. Excavations in 1900 at the site  of
Knossos  revealed  the  existence  of  a  culture  named  by
archaeologists  as  Minoan after  a  mythical  king,  Minos.
Minoans probably settled in Crete before 3000 BC.

There  is evidence of outside influence in Crete; apparently
Egyptian  traders  reached the Aegean  Sea  soon  after  the
Minoans did. Nevertheless, Minoan civilization developed its
own unique features, and by about 2000 BC, great cities with
elaborate  and luxurious palaces were built, and  sea  trade
was flourishing.

The  Minoans  had  a picture-writing system,  as  had  other
ancient  peoples. The Minoan religion seems to have centered
on  a mother goddess and on the figures of the bull and  the
snake.  The  Minoans  are  known  for  their  beautiful  and
colorful  wall  paintings and their fine pottery.  In  about
1400  BC  Minoan civilization began to decline. The end  was
hastened by invasions from mainland Greece.

                            China

The  Chinese  had settled in the Huang He, or Yellow  River,
valley  of  northern  China by 3000 BC.  By  then  they  had
pottery,  wheels,  farms, and silk, but  they  had  not  yet
discovered writing or the uses of metals.

The Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 BC) is the first documented era
of  ancient China. The highly developed hierarchy  consisted
of  a  king, nobles, commoners, and slaves. The capital city
was  Anyang,  in  north Henan Province. Some  scholars  have
suggested that travelers from Mesopotamia and from Southeast
Asia brought agricultural methods to China, which stimulated
the  growth  of  ancient  Chinese  civilization.  The  Shang
peoples  were  known for their use of jade,  bronze,  horse-
drawn  chariots,  ancestor  worship,  and  highly  organized
armies.

Like  other  ancient peoples, the Chinese  developed  unique
attributes. Their form of writing, developed by 2000 BC, was
a  complex  system  of picture writing  using  forms  called
ideograms, pictograms, and phonograms. Such early  forms  of
Chinese became known through the discovery by archaeologists
of oracle bones, which were bones with writings inscribed on
them.  They were used for fortune-telling and record keeping
in ancient China.

The  Chou  Dynasty (1122-221 BC) saw the full  flowering  of
ancient civilization in China. During this period the empire
was  unified, a middle class arose, and iron was introduced.
The sage Confucius (551-479 BC) developed the code of ethics
that  dominated Chinese thought and culture for the next  25
centuries (see Confucius).

                        Meso-America

Meso-America  is  the  term used  to  describe  the  ancient
settlements  of  Mexico  and Central  America.  Civilization
arose  in  the Americas much later than in the Middle  East.
Whether   Native   Americans   reinvented   the   tools   of
civilization, such as farming and writing, or  whether  they
were brought from older societies is a topic of debate among
scholars.

The earliest elaborate civilization known in the Americas is
that of the Olmec of central Mexico. The Olmec lived in  the
humid  lowlands of present Veracruz and Tabasco states  from
about  1200 BC. They left artifacts ranging from  tiny  jade
carvings to huge monuments such as the volcanic rock statues
at  San  Lorenzo,  which are 9 feet (3 meters)  tall.  These
monuments suggest the existence of an organized and  diverse
society  with leaders who could command the work of artisans
and  laborers.  Other early civilizations  in  the  Americas
include  the  Chavin  of  Peru,  the  Chono  of  Chile,  the
Tehuelche of Argentina, the Tupians of Brazil, the  Maya  of
the Yucatan Peninsula, and the Inca of Peru.

Only  four  ancient  civilizations Mesopotamia,  Egypt,  the
Indus  Valley,  and China provided the basis for  continuous
cultural developments in the same location. After the Minoan
society on Crete was destroyed, its cultural traditions  and
legends passed into the life of mainland Greece. As for Meso-
America,   its  cultures  were  submerged  by  the   Spanish
conquerors of the 16th century.

            BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR ANCIENT CIVILIZATION

                     Books for Children

Adams, J.-P. Mediterranean Civilizations (Silver, 1987).
Atkins, Sinclair. From Stone Age to Conquest (Dufour, 1986).
Lambert, David. Ancient Peoples (Watts, 1987).
Odjik, Pamela. The Ancient World (Silver, 1990).

                   Books for Young Adults

Age of God-Kings: Time Frame 3000-1500 BC. (Time-Life,1987).
Boardman, John and others, eds.    The Oxford History of the
Classical World (Oxford, 1986).
Cotterell, Arthur, ed.   The Penguin Encyclopedia of Ancient
Civilizations (Penguin, 1989).
Howe, Helen & Howe, R.T.  The Ancient World (Longman, 1988).
Lamberg-Karlovsky,  C.C. and Sabloff, J.A. Ancient Civiliza-
tions: The Near Eastand Mesoamerica (Waveland, 1987).
Larkin, P.J. The Ancient World (Dufour, 1983).
McNeill, W.H. The Rise of the West  (Univ. of Chicago Press,
1970).

Thomas, C.G.  The Earliest Civilizations: Ancient Greece and
the Near East, 3000-200 BC (Univ. Press of America, 1982).

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Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia
Copyright c 1993, 1994 Compton's NewMedia, Inc.


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